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Global and Culturally Diverse Leaders and Leadership: New Dimensions and Challenges for Business, Education and Society

Building Leadership Bridges

The International Leadership Association (ILA) series, Building Leadership Bridges, brings together leadership coaches and consultants, educators and students, scholars and researchers, and public leaders and executives working around the globe to create unique topical volumes on contemporary leadership issues. This cross-sector, cross-cultural, cross-disciplinary series contributes to more integrated leadership thinking, practices, and solutions that can positively impact our complex local and global environments. The world needs better leadership and ILA's mission of promoting a deeper understanding of leadership knowledge and practice for the greater good aims to make a difference. Learn more at www.ila-net.org.

Forthcoming Title:

Evolving Leadership for a Sustainable Future: A Path to Collective Wellbeing, edited by S. Steffen, with S. Rappaport and S. Trevenna (2018)

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Title Page

Global and Culturally Diverse Leaders and Leadership: New Dimensions and Challenges for Business, Education and Society

Edited by

Jean Lau Chin

Adelphi University, Garden City, NY, USA

Joseph E. Trimble

Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, USA

Joseph E. Garcia

Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, USA

United Kingdom – North America – Japan – India – Malaysia – China

Copyright Page

Emerald Publishing Limited

Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2018

Copyright © 2018 Emerald Publishing Limited

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-78743-496-7 (Print)

ISBN: 978-1-78743-495-0 (Online)

ISBN: 978-1-78743-535-3 (Epub)

ISSN: 2058-8801 (Series)

List of Contributors

Foreword

It is a very exciting and challenging time to examine the current changes of leadership styles in society, especially given the rapidly changing demographic changes worldwide. Those changes result in a society where members may speak several languages; have a variety of customs and ceremonies; represent people of colors; display a variety of clothing; introduce a variety of foods; and display multicultural and feminist specific orientations to leadership. It is thus timely that Chin, Trimble, and Garcia provide us with an edited volume on diverse leadership that provides a new body of knowledge that is more relevant and applicable in today’s world.

Leadership is defined in a number of ways, and numerous models of leadership are described in the literature Most models describe the various processes of interpersonal influence that use power and authority to encourage others to act to achieve goals. Chin and Trimble (2015) addressed the importance of diversity and leadership to arrive at more expanded models of leadership. Their work is foundational to this volume where authors are providing more nuanced understanding of such issues as authentic leadership, revisiting trait theory, and integrating critical race theory. What impact do different models have on those influenced by the leadership styles and approaches?

Traditional leadership styles have advantages and disadvantages. In their 2015 volume Chin and Trimble described research that identified the most important characteristics and styles out of 63 that are embraced and preferred by various populations, and the least important. Results indicated that the least important were those associated with the “alpha male” leadership style, including aggressive, conflict-inducer, dominant, self-centered, and status conscious. The more important endorsed descriptors included adaptability, integrity, authenticity, honesty, and communicator (Chin & Trimble, 2015; Trimble, 2015).

Since the 2016 presidential election, we have witnessed a traditional dominant leadership style of the U.S. President, who has the lowest approval rating of any chief executive since Gallup began tracking the initial months of a president’s term in 1953. The rating is due to high disapproval among Democrats and independents, but there is considerable satisfaction on the part of many Republicans, including those who elected him (Yourish & Murray, 2017, March 20). It is clear that people follow different leaders; various styles may influence individuals and groups differentially. The American Psychological Association’s Stress in America survey found that between August 2016 and January 2017, Americans’ overall average reported stress rose from 4.8 to 5.1 on a 10-point scale. Also, more than half of Americans (57%) report that the current political climate is a very significant source of stress. Also, two-thirds (66%) say the same about the future of our nation, and nearly half (49%) report that the outcome of the election is a very or somewhat significant source of stress (APA, 2017).

Chin and Trimble (2015), Trimble (2015), and most of the authors in this edition propose that in a changing society, new leadership styles are emerging and preferred. Traditional western models of leadership may be less and less relevant for societies that are increasingly diverse and global. As our societies become more diverse, more diverse leaders with a variety of styles are more relevant and appropriate; it is vital that the citizenry not only tolerate, but appreciate the contributions that diverse leaders can provide.

Several years ago former Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O’Conner conveyed the belief that diversity in leadership was a compelling interest in society. She spoke of the importance of a critical mass of racial and ethnic minority attendees in higher education in order to cultivate a set of leaders from those diverse backgrounds with legitimacy in the eyes of the citizenry. She thus supported affirmative action in universities because she believed that universities are partly in the business of training a leadership corps for society and that a society with racial and ethnic tensions can benefit tremendously from having a diverse and integrated leadership ( Gratz v. Bollinger, 2003; Grutter v. Bollinger, 2003; Jayson & Rodriguez, 2003, p. A-1).

The different perspectives and insights provided in this volume provide a critically important understanding relative to traditional perspectives on leadership. The authors shed light on under-researched and under-examined areas related to evolving leadership approaches regarding how to lead, but also what goals leaders should attempt to accomplish. This contribution does indeed address the value of a diverse leadership in society, including at a global level, especially in the context of challenging leadership models that have historically omitted racial and ethnic groups in society. Authors describe how diverse representation promotes values such as collectivism, benevolence, and familial affiliations that have greater relevance, effectiveness, and applicability in today’s world. Authors also describe leadership theories and research agenda that are more relevant to a growing multicultural population. This helps contribute to a knowledge base that allows for leaders to be more responsive to the evolving changes in societies. The knowledge base can help and support women, people from different racial/ethnic backgrounds as well as traditional leaders to avoid becoming or continuing to be like those already in the power elite. It provides opportunity for different lived experiences and worldviews to influence those leadership styles.

The opportunity for a citizenry to have diverse leadership is a social justice issue. Leaders with varying ideologies and values that include prioritization of social justice issues can have positive impact on issues such as racism, classism, sexism, poverty, and other oppressions. Perhaps one of the most intriguing themes among several authors is how social identity variables such as gender, race, and ethnicity influence leader behaviors. Some of the authors address values of equity and social justice, and how the lived experiences of those from diverse backgrounds may predispose them to be empowered to prioritize those altruistic values. This volume describes how worldviews and lived experiences influence leadership styles, and how the interaction of diverse leaders, diverse members, and diverse contexts shape the enactment of leadership.

The challenges of diverse leadership are also addressed, including strategies for addressing some of those challenges. Leaders who have indigenous backgrounds, who are racial and ethnic minorities, or are women or homosexual often deal with those who are accustomed to White, North American, heterosexual males, and traditional leadership styles, e.g., masculinized, individual oriented, dominant, and controlled. Destructive biases, either explicit or implicit can result in failure to accept the diverse leader and/or leadership style. The authors validate orientations that examine virtue from philosophical and ethical principles, collective orientations, collaboration as a leadership process, incorporation of inclusiveness, socially derived identities tied to leadership traits, and examination of how altruism influences goals and communication across groups.

The authors also provide valuable information in the context of theories and models to help guide the development and training of leaders in a variety of different settings, including educational institutions, and business, military, professional, and civic organizations. Great skill is required in balancing conflicting interests that emerge in most contexts and in most settings. Training can help leaders become aware of the factors that shape goals, including the leaders’ personal values, the organizational context, and needs of the setting. The information has the potential to help leaders become more effective across a broad range of situations. Training can also help leaders from diverse background to develop skills to address forms of microaggressions and other challenges to their leadership.

Editors Jean Lau Chin, Joseph E. Trimble, and Joseph E. Garcia are to be congratulated for their selection of authors who contributed knowledgeable, insightful, thought provoking, and inspiring chapters. This is a significant contribution to the evolving literature and research on leadership and diversity. It challenges existing notions of leadership with a more global vision of society. I am enthused about this extraordinary contribution that helps bring to light how we can understand, develop, promote, and support a more inclusive, diverse, and effective set of leaders in the many contexts of society.

Melba J. T. Vasquez

Introduction

The rapidly changing demographic composition worldwide calls into question the relevance of leadership models that historically have omitted ethnic and racial groups or diverse groups within society or a country. Rooted in a North American and European tradition, this omission has fostered a research agenda that was ethnocentric, gender biased, and bound by time and place. Western models of leadership have remained dominant and sometimes inappropriately applied to leadership in diverse, multicultural contexts. This is no longer justified as we enter a world and societies that are increasingly global and diverse. We start this volume by asking the following questions:

• How well prepared will leaders be to lead a diverse workforce and provide products and services to a diverse clientele?

• What will we teach our increasingly diverse future leaders?

• How will leadership models build a knowledge base that can be generalized to the population as a whole and to be inclusive of diverse entities within an organization?

• How do we prepare ourselves, our communities, our constituents, and our leaders to live, work, and practice in these future realities?

This volume examines new ways of examining research, teaching, and practice to develop a body of knowledge on leadership that will have greater relevance, effectiveness, and applicability in today’s world. While masculinized contexts of leadership have prevailed, 21^st-century models should seriously include feminist and culturally specific orientations to leadership.

With growing population diversity and mobility in the United States and throughout the world, leaders and members will find themselves in more culturally heterogeneous settings, organizations, and communities than ever before. Leaders of tomorrow need to be prepared to lead a diverse workforce in ways that are culturally responsive and competent in meeting the needs of a growing multicultural population. This demands that leadership theories and research be more inclusive and robust if they are to remain relevant. How best can we do that?

People throughout the world will grapple with the question of who best can lead them. Must our leaders look like us and share our beliefs and values? Are there different styles that lead to greater cultural understanding and healthier leader-member relationships? How do we prepare ourselves to live, work, and lead in a world when we do not know the skills we will need or the environments we will face?

A majority of leadership models foster a research agenda that is ethnocentric, gender-biased, and bound by time and place (Chin, 2009, 2010; Chin & Trimble, 2015; Eagly & Chin, 2010; Turnbull, Case, Edwards, Schedlitzki, & Simpson, 2012). With the growing worldwide population shifts, leaders and followers will find themselves in more heterogeneous contexts within institutions and communities than ever before. Will leaders be prepared to lead a diverse workforce and provide products and services to a culturally varied clientele? What will we teach our future leaders as they and those they lead become increasingly diverse? How will leadership models build a knowledge base that can be generalized to our expanding global and diverse societies? Can leaders and leadership be responsive to change?

In this volume, we challenge existing notions of leadership. We use personal narratives and case studies of diverse leadership styles to illustrate the importance of diversity in our lives, communities, and workplace, and how it influences access to leadership positions and exercise of leadership. An “idealized” prototypic model of leadership often drives leadership training and prescribes conditions of leadership for corporate, higher education, science, and social and political sectors of society.

As more women and people from different ethnocultural backgrounds begin to emerge in leadership ranks, Zweigenhaft and Domhoff (2006) report that they often become more like those already in the power elite. The prevailing question then is: Is there room for diverse forms of leadership, or are new leaders constrained by the prevailing norms?

Existing leadership theories often draw their case examples and narratives of those already in leadership positions, i.e., White, North American, heterosexual males, representing a narrow range of the potentially rich and diverse examples of leadership. As we develop leadership paradigms for an increasingly global and diverse society, we need to expand our examples with narratives reflecting the diverse experiences and social identities of leaders who understand and live amidst different paradigms of effective leadership.

In this volume, we give needed attention to ethnocultural diversity and leadership styles that reflect more inclusive theories of leadership applicable to the exercise of successful leadership in unique and diverse cultural settings. We include the use of personal narratives and case studies to offer new paradigms and identify new dimensions in the study and practice of leadership – to examine diversity in the minds and actions of successful leaders. We hope it will offer insights to challenge our existing notions of leadership and generate a post-industrial, post-colonial, diverse, and global view of leadership. Through the use of narratives and case studies we will emphasize:

• How the different worldviews and lived experiences of leaders influence leadership styles.

• How social justice, ethical, and cultural values are often manifest and included in dialogues about leadership.

• How social identities of leaders (e.g., gender, race, and ethnicity) intersect with leader identities and may result in biases that influence perceptions, shape leader behaviors, and influence appraisals of a leader’s effectiveness.

• How the exchange between diverse leaders and diverse members and between leaders and diverse contexts shape the enactment of leadership.

Part 1: A New Look At Leadership: Overview

Western styles and models of leadership currently dominate the leadership literature. New global and diverse perspectives of leadership can begin to include non-dominant views where collectivism, benevolence, and familial affiliations are given greater prominence. This might include an attention to different perspectives of the same phenomenon which some might find to be anathema to long-held beliefs, e.g., examining virtue in leadership from philosophical and ethical principles as opposed to empirical validation; comparing effective leadership using collective vs. individual orientations; using non-Western metaphors, such as Daoist principles, to define the process of leadership; considering how alternative construals of the self as interdependent might influence the image of leaders; collaboration as a process; leader traits as identities which are socially derived; incorporating inclusiveness and difference as goals; examining power and its relationship to altruism, dominance, and control; and communication across groups and cultures.

Although leadership theories have evolved to reflect changing social contexts, they remain silent on issues of equity, diversity, and social justice. In these chapters, the authors challenge existing theories of leadership and move toward viewing leadership via a global view of organizations in their societal contexts. Others incorporate principles of leadership that are inclusive, multidimensional, and address group differences through the voices of those who have experienced cultural challenges rather than those who are privileged. In redefining leadership as global and diverse, the authors impart a new understanding of who our leaders are, the process of communication, the exchange between leaders and their members, and the contexts that shape the exercise of leadership.

1. Theory Leadership from Africa: Examples of Trait Theory – Nyasha M. GuramatunhuCooper

2. The Case for an Indigenous Collectivist Mindset – Kem Gambrell

3. Cross-cultural Dimensions of Personal Stories in Communicating Authentic Leadership – Marco Aponte-Moreno and Konstantinos Koulouris

4. How the Communal Philosophies of Ubuntu in Africa and Confucius Thought in China Might Enrich Western Notions of Leadership – Rob Elkington and Elizabeth A. Tuleja

Part 2: Ethnocultural Contexts

People around the world increasingly recognize their discontent with leadership models that derive from a Eurocentric or North American perspective. As more diverse leaders are recognized in the world (they exist in many different countries not viewed as among the powerful Western nations), or enter the ranks of leadership viewed to be the power elite, they are looking to be inclusive and multidimensional. Indigenous perspectives, once relegated to the exotic, less powerful, and unessential are now empowered to be perspectives worthy and useful in their own right. Chapters in this section provide examples of these alternative approaches among different populations, and open a dialogue on a more balanced view of how leadership is viewed and exercised.

1. Influence and Global Leadership: China, India, and the Multinational Corporation – Christie Caldwell and Ethan Prizant

2. Indo-European Leadership (IEL): A Non-Western Leadership Perspective –Afsaneh Nahavandi and Hema A. Krishnan

3. Current and Emerging Patterns of Muslim Leadership – Lina Klemkaite

Part 3: Application of Global and Diverse Perspectives in Different Contexts

As we urge paradigm shifts to develop and expand leadership models that are inclusive of all groups, responsive to difference and diversity among leaders and members, and attentive to the interaction of lived experiences, social identities, and leader-member exchange, chapters in this section apply these principles to different contexts in which leadership is exercised. The five chapters examine the different sectors of service to communities, social justice, military, and higher education from both the leader’s and student’s perspectives. While Part 2 examines ethnocultural contexts from the standpoint of populations and how their cultures influence and intersect with leadership, Part 3 is about the culture of organizations and institutions which shape how leadership is exercised. These chapters introduce the sense of vision and purpose that challenge our exercise of leadership and the values we bring to bear on how we lead.

1. Service Leadership under the Service Economy – Daniel T. L. Shek, Po Chung, Li Lin, Hildie Leung, and Eddie Ng

2. Reinvigorating Conversations about Leadership: Application of Strategic Choice Theory to the Social Justice Organizational Leader – Caroline S. Clauss-Ehlers and Lynn Pasquerella

3. Probing Leadership from Racio-Ethnic Perspectives in Higher Education: An Emergent Model of Accelerating Leader Identity – Jeanetta D. Sims, Ed Cunliff, Atoya Sims, and Kristi Robertson

4. Campus Unrest in American Higher Education: Challenges and Opportunities for Strategic Diversity Leadership – Ralph A. Gigliotti, Brighid Dwyer, and Kristina Ruiz-Mesa

5. Inclusive Leadership and the Dynamics of Multinational Military Operations – Yvonne R. Masakowski

Part 4: Future Directions…

We end with visions of future directions for studies of leadership and how leadership is central to advancing society and promoting social change. As we examine the influence of different worldviews and lived influence leadership, how social justice, ethical, and cultural values emerge in our vision, goals, and exercise of leadership, how social identities of gender, race, and ethnicity intersect between diverse leaders’ identities and diverse members, and how that exchange shapes the enactment of leadership, we emerge with new perspectives with an emphasis on cultural competence and promoting change. Saini emphasizes concepts of benevolence and ethics while Thompson et al. emphasize sustainable cultural competence as a catalyst for effective and excellent leadership. Chandler and Kirsch introduce a critical lens to examine the patterns of oppression and domination to challenge the power relations and social processes of leadership and to promote change.

1. A New Perspective toward Leadership Paradigm – Damini Saini

2. A Sustainable, Culturally Competent Approach to Academic Leadership – Sherwood Thompson, Timothy Forde, and Tom Otieno

3. Addressing Race and Culture within a Critical Leadership Approach – Jennifer L. S. Chandler and Robert E. Kirsch

Jean Lau Chin

Joseph E. Trimble

Joseph E. Garcia

Editors