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Young children under the age of five are particularly overrepresented in traumatic brain injury (TBI) due to accidents and falls. To remediate the problems, confronting young children with TBI, is critical that they are introduced to opportunities to be placed in general education classrooms at the earliest possible point. The purposes of this chapter are to (1) describe causes, symptoms, and challenges following TBI (e.g., physical, emotional, and cognitive difficulties), (2) distinguish mild TBI (MTBI) from other mild categories of disability, (3) identify classroom interventions and strategies, and (4) identify parenting strategies that may provide essential support for them in adjusting to and managing their young child’s difficulties.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can significantly affect academic performance in a wide range of areas including, working memory, language processing, attention, and internalizing and externalizing behaviors. This chapter will discuss characteristics associated with TBI, and provide a series of high- and low-tech strategies teachers can implement in their classrooms to help students who have experienced brain trauma to succeed through academic challenges. In addition, the benefits and weaknesses of certain technologies used by students with TBI in school and at home will be discussed.

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is the most common brain injury and the leading cause of disability in children in the United States (Schilling & Getch, 2012). In addition to physical and cognitive rehabilitation, a family and their child need socio-emotional supports during school re-entry after brain injury. This chapter presents an understanding of the experience of school re-entry for children with TBI from the perspective of the parents. Their narratives of the preinjury, injury, and postinjury experience are framed in the medical and social models as well as special education. Findings suggest that throughout the process, community is a constant while parents’ advocacy roles shift with regard to their child’s holistic care. Academic research in this area is limited given TBI is a hidden disability representing a broad spectrum of diagnosis, where the individual may have no obvious physical effects even though the injury may have a significant impact on their behavior and daily life. This chapter will propose interventions for educators to use with consideration of cultural and familiar traditions.

Positive sexual growth is a key developmental challenge for all children and adolescents. An acquired brain injury (ABI) can create major hurdles to achieving this goal. A conceptual model will be outlined that suggests sexual growth is achieved by progress across six domains, namely: social competence versus social isolation; identity formation, individuation and independence versus dependence and lack of individual identity; physical development versus physical challenge; sexually informed and educated versus sexually ignorant and uneducated; sexually experienced versus sexually inexperienced; and sexually appropriate behaviour versus sexually inappropriate behaviour. The ability to form successful peer relationships is a key mediating factor in the developmental process. Drawing on this model, a number of strategies will be outlined that support the positive sexual development of children and adolescents after ABI.

While often considered a low incidence disability, traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) among students are anything but low incidence occurrences. Furthermore, educators are often at times not made aware that a student is injured; when informed, the information provided is generally limited or incomplete at best leaving educators unsure regarding what is needed for the student. In this chapter, information on TBI and its effects on students is provided. We also explore the history of inclusion, mechanisms for service delivery, accommodations and modifications for injured students, and transitioning and reintegrating students post-injury. Lastly, we provide a review of common barriers to service delivery and offer both proactive and reactive strategies to overcome those barriers.

Clinically significant childhood acquired brain injury (ABI) is associated with increased risk of emotional and behavioural dysfunction and peer relationship problems. The purpose of this paper is to determine how emotional and peer related problems for children with ABI compare with those of children referred to mental health services, and to identify clinical predictors of peer relationship problems in a heterogeneous sample typical of a specialist community rehabilitation setting.

Participants were 51 children with clinically significant ABI (32 traumatic brain injury; 29 male) referred for outpatient neuropsychological rehabilitation. Emotional, behavioural and social outcomes were measured using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), and executive functioning was measured with the Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Functions. Correlational analyses were used to explore variables associated with peer relationships. A subgroup (n=27) of children with ABI were compared to an age and sex matched mental health group to determine differences on SDQ subscales.

The SDQ profiles of children with clinically significant ABI did not significantly differ from matched children referred to mental health services. Time since injury, peer relationship problems, metacognitive, and behavioural problems correlated with age at injury. These variables and SDQ emotional problems correlated with peer relationship problems. Linear multiple regression analysis indicated that only metacognitive skills remained a significant predictor of peer relationship problems, and metacognitive skills were found to significantly mediate between age at injury and peer relationship problems.

The study confirms the significant effect of childhood ABI on relationships with peers and mental health, those injured at a younger age faring worst. Within the methodological constraints of this study, the results tentatively suggest that age of injury influences later peer relationships via the mediating role of poor metacognitive skills within a heterogeneous clinical sample.

This is the first study to examine the roles of emotional, behavioural and executive variables on the effect of age at injury on peer relationship problems in a sample with a wide range of ages and ages of injury.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the research into prevalence of acquired brain injury in non-ABI specialist services, the impact of the invisible aspects of executive impairment and loss of insight upon functioning and to question how this is assessed and managed by generalist services.

A literature search was undertaken to identify where people with an ABI may come in to contact with services that are not specifically designed to meet their needs.

ABI is prevalent amongst users of a variety of community, inpatient and criminal justice services. The common albeit invisible consequences of ABI complicate assessment, service use and or treatment particularly in the context of a lack of under pinning knowledge and experience amongst the staff in non-specialist ABI services. As a consequence risks to children and adults are increased, opportunities for rehabilitation and growth are lost and human potential squandered. Addressing the first stage in this process, developing knowledge of the consequences of ABI and how to assess need, is a pre-requisite for change.

An absence of basic underlying knowledge of the consequences of ABI impacts upon assessment and so limits the effectiveness of services. A consequence of this is manifest in the over-representation of people with an ABI to be found in non-specialist settings.

–Little research is undertaken from a social and community perspective into the impact of ABI over the longer term for those who have no contact with specialist services and yet, quite clearly by their use of other services, have unidentified, unrecognised and un-responded to needs.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is unique among areas of eligibility for students with disabilities in federal special education legislation, not in what is assessed, but why the assessment is taking place. If not for the injury, most individuals with TBI would be unlikely to come to the attention of special educators. Few education training programs appear to allocate sufficient attention to the category, so we present background information regarding prevalence, recovery, and outcomes before summarizing advice from the literature regarding assessment of individuals with TBI in schools. Although educators are unlikely to be involved in the initial diagnosis of TBI, they can be important collaborators in promoting recovery or detecting a worsening condition. Almost every assessment tool available to educators is likely to be of value in this endeavor. These include both formal and informal approaches to assessment. Working with individuals with TBI requires sensitivity and compassion.

Childhood traumatic brain injury (CTBI) is one of the most common causes of mortality and disability in children and adolescents that impacts on neuropsychological, social and psychological development. A disruption of development in these areas often results in long-term problems with interpersonal relationships, participation in leisure and social activities and employment status. These social and psychological problems appear to persist longer in comparison to other functional consequences, although evidence is scarce. The purpose of this paper is to investigate social and psychological outcomes 15 years post-injury.

In all, 36 participants post-CTBI (mean age 21.47 years, SD=2.74), 16 males) and 18 healthy controls (mean age 20.94 years, SD=2.21), 12 males) were recruited from a larger sample of a longitudinal study conducted at the Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia. Information about social and psychological functioning was collected via questionnaires completed at 15 years post-injury.

Results showed that post-CTBI, adolescents and young adults reported elevated risk of developing psychological problems following their transition into adulthood. CTBI survivors reported greatest problems on internalizing symptoms such as depression, anxiety and withdrawal.

Despite the reported psychological symptoms, the survivors of CTBI did not report more social problems than their peers. Further research is needed to identify long-term social and psychological problems so that optimal intervention may be provided.

This is the first perspective longitudinal study investigating the young adults perspective of their long-term psychosocial outcomes following CTBI.

Children experience toxic stress if there is pronounced activation of their stress-response systems, in situations in which they do not have stable caregiving. Due to their exposure to multiple poverty-related risks, African American children may be more susceptible to exposure to toxic stress. Toxic stress affects young children’s brain and neurophysiologic functioning, which leads to a wide range of deleterious health, developmental, and mental health outcomes. Given the benefits of early care and education (ECE) for African American young children, ECE may represent a compensating experience for this group of children, and promote their positive development.