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Article
Publication date: 1 April 1984

William Exton

A major petroleum company had grown large and prosperous, absorbed a series of acquisitions, greatly extended both its geographical basis, and its range of activities, and…

24

Abstract

A major petroleum company had grown large and prosperous, absorbed a series of acquisitions, greatly extended both its geographical basis, and its range of activities, and outgrown some of its ways of doing business. A new chief executive officer was recruited from the upper echelons of another industry leader, and suddenly the way was open for drastic change.

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Planning Review, vol. 12 no. 4
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0094-064X

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Publication date: 1 June 1974

Harry C. Bauer

A MAN'S LAST WORDS carry presumption of credibility not associated with utterances made earlier in life. William Shakespeare acknowledged this credibility in at least three of his…

98

Abstract

A MAN'S LAST WORDS carry presumption of credibility not associated with utterances made earlier in life. William Shakespeare acknowledged this credibility in at least three of his plays. When the physician, Cornelius, told Cymbeline that the Queen had confessed that she loved him not, Cymbeline declared, ‘She alone knew this;/And, but she spoke it dying, I would not/Believe her lips in opening it.’

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Library Review, vol. 24 no. 6
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0024-2535

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Publication date: 1 March 1907

MUCH has already been said and written upon the subject of the indicator: but in view of the general trend of advanced Public Library administration a little space may with…

47

Abstract

MUCH has already been said and written upon the subject of the indicator: but in view of the general trend of advanced Public Library administration a little space may with advantage be devoted again to the consideration of its value as a modern library appliance. Passing over (a) the decision of that curiously constituted committee formed in 1879 to consider and report on indicators, and (b) the support which it received in 1880 from the Library Association, it may be said that for the next fourteen or fifteen years the indicator system was the popular, almost the universal, system in vogue throughout the country. Of late years professional opinion as to its value has undergone a remarkable change. The reaction which has set in was brought about chiefly by the introduction of Open Access in 1894, with the many reforms that accompanied it, though much, doubtless, was due to the prevalence of a more exact and systematic knowledge of librarianship, and to the natural evolution of ideas. It is not, however, intended in this paper to compare the indicator with the open access system, but with others suitable to the requirements of a closed library.

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New Library World, vol. 9 no. 9
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0307-4803

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Publication date: 1 August 1943

Normal calcium metabolism may be considered under six main headings, each closely related to, and dependent on one another. These divisions are: (1) The skeleton; (2) The level of…

19

Abstract

Normal calcium metabolism may be considered under six main headings, each closely related to, and dependent on one another. These divisions are: (1) The skeleton; (2) The level of calcium in the blood; (3) The intake of calcium; (4) The output of calcium; (5) The factors which regulate the absorption of calcium from gut; (6) Certain endocrine glands which have a controlling influence on the output of calcium in the urine.

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British Food Journal, vol. 45 no. 8
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0007-070X

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Publication date: 1 January 1943

The complex cellular structure and chemical nature of fruit and vegetable tissues retard evaporation so that under no conditions of temperature and humidity does the rate of…

51

Abstract

The complex cellular structure and chemical nature of fruit and vegetable tissues retard evaporation so that under no conditions of temperature and humidity does the rate of evaporation from them equal that from a free water surface. When conditions are such that surface evaporation from the tissues exceeds the rate of moisture diffusion to the surface, the surface becomes dry and hard and seals in the moisture. This condition, known as case‐hardening, is overcome by reducing the temperature of the air or by increasing the humidity. The maximum rate of drying, then, is attained by using the highest temperature which will not injure the product, the humidity being sufficient to prevent case‐hardening. In general practice the temperature of the air entering the drying chamber should not exceed 160° to 170° F. The humidity at the air‐outlet end of the drier should not greatly exceed 65 per cent. In driers employing recirculation the conditions of temperature and humidity may be largely controlled by varying the recirculation. The velocities of air flow which produce the most efficient results in the drying chamber depend upon several conditions. In general the rate of drying increases with the velocity of air movement. Low air velocities tend to bring about slow and uneven drying. Exceedingly high velocities may not be used profitably because a point is app ched at which the materials will be blown from the trays or at which the increased speed of drying will not offset the cost of operating a larger fan. Velocities of 600 to 800 feet per minute through the drying chamber are satisfactory in tunnel driers; lower velocities are permissible in compartment driers. The most practical means of removing moisture from the air, and at the same time conserving heat, is through the steady discharge of a portion of the air leaving the drying chamber. The rest dries efficiently when mixed with fresh air from the outside and reheated. All forced‐draught driers, therefore, should be provided with recirculation ducts connecting the air‐outlet end of the drying chamber with the heaters and with dampers controlling the air discharged, recirculated, and drawn from the outside. Dehydrated fruits and vegetables should have a uniform moisture content low enough to inhibit undesirable microbic and chemical changes within the food, and they should be free from any part of the life cycle of moths or other insects. The moisture content of dehydrated foods directly controls deterioration within the food, and the protection afforded by sulphuring or blanching will not prevent insufficiently dried products from soon becoming unfit for use. Dehydrated products having a low moisture content are not readily attacked by insects. In the long run the additional protection afforded by a low moisture content will more than make up to the producer the loss resulting from the longer drying time and greater weight shrinkage involved. To assure best keeping qualities the moisture content of fruits containing much sugar should not exceed 15 to 20 per cent., while that of other fruits and vegetables should not exceed 5 to 10 per cent., the preference in both cases being for the lower percentage. The texture, or feel, of products is a guide in determining when the proper stage of dryness has been reached. At a given moisture content products usually feel softer when hot than after they have been cooled, and often they feel softer after standing until the moisture has become evenly distributed throughout the pieces than when first cooled. A rough test for moisture in dried fruits is to take up a double handful, squeeze it tight into a ball, and release the pressure. If the fruit seems soft, mushy, or wet, and sticks together when the pressure is released, the moisture content is probably 25 per cent. or more. If the fruit is springy, and, when the pressure is released, separates in a few seconds to form pieces of approximately the original size and shape, the moisture content is usually about 20 to 25 per cent. If the fruit feels hard or horny and does not press together, falling apart promptly when the pressure is released, the moisture content is probably below 20 per cent. At the proper stage of dryness vegetables look thoroughly dry and are often hard or crisp. The Association of Official Agricultural Chemists has published a method for the determination of moisture in dried fruits. In using methods of this type, care must be taken to select a composite sample from different parts of the lot, so that it will be representative of the lot as a whole, and directions for preparing the sample must be carefully followed in order to obtain dependable results. Products are never uniformly dry when removed from the drier. Large pieces and pieces not as directly exposed to the currents of heated air as most of the material contain more moisture than the rest. Products should be stored in large bins until the moisture becomes evenly distributed. This period of curing will usually take several weeks. An alternative method is to place the dried product in large friction‐top cans for curing, thus insuring complete protection from contamination and insect infestation. Leafy vegetables, like spinach, must remain in the drier until the moisture content of the stems is very low. At this point the product is bulky and the leaves are brittle. For economy in packing and handling it is desirable to reduce the bulk by compression. For this purpose the leaves are exposed to currents of cool damp air until they have reabsorbed just enough moisture to make them slightly flexible. For convenience in handling and to facilitate the application of heat or fumigation, products should be packed in the room where they were cured and stored. Such a room should be strictly clean, dry, cool and well ventilated. The doors should fit tightly, and the windows should be covered with fine‐mesh screen to exclude dust and insects. An abundance of light assists in detecting the presence of insects and in keeping the room clean. The types of containers chosen for packing will depend largely upon the severity of the storage conditions, with particular reference to the humidity and to chances of insect infestation. An ideal container would be one which, while moderate in cost, would keep the product from absorbing moisture when exposed to the most severe conditions of storage and shipment, and would be impervious to insects. Sealed tin cans and glass jars give absolute protection against moisture absorption and insect infestation. Friction‐top cans are nearly as good. Tin containers, necessary for export shipments of dehydrated foods, are more expensive than paper containers. Wooden boxes are generally used for bulk goods. Liners of heavy paper or cardboard, and sometimes additional liners of waxed paper, are used. The use of moisture‐proof cellophane packages is increasing. All types of paper containers with which experiments have been made allow the absorption of moisture when the products are stored in damp places. Also paper containers do not give perfect protection against all insects, some of which can bore holes in paper, while the larval forms of others are so small that they can crawl through the slightest imperfections at the joints where the cartons are sealed. Most products, however, keep satisfactorily in double or triple moisture‐proof cellophane or waxed‐paper bags packed in waxed, moisture‐proof cartons, provided the initial moisture content is low and no live insects in any form enter the package. Packing in insect‐proof and moisture‐proof packages cannot be too greatly stressed.

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British Food Journal, vol. 45 no. 1
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0007-070X

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Publication date: 1 September 1963

THE serious and intractable housing problem persists to plague governments and embitter citizens. Why this is so can be gleaned from a few statistics.

45

Abstract

THE serious and intractable housing problem persists to plague governments and embitter citizens. Why this is so can be gleaned from a few statistics.

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Work Study, vol. 12 no. 9
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0043-8022

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Publication date: 1 May 1987

On April 2, 1987, IBM unveiled a series of long‐awaited new hardware and software products. The new computer line, dubbed the Personal Systems 30, 50, 60, and 80, seems destined…

96

Abstract

On April 2, 1987, IBM unveiled a series of long‐awaited new hardware and software products. The new computer line, dubbed the Personal Systems 30, 50, 60, and 80, seems destined to replace the XT and AT models that are the mainstay of the firm's current personal computer offerings. The numerous changes in hardware and software, while representing improvements on previous IBM technology, will require users purchasing additional computers to make difficult choices as to which of the two IBM architectures to adopt.

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M300 and PC Report, vol. 4 no. 5
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0743-7633

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Publication date: 1 November 1944

1. From the information given to the Committee by members of the trade the following conclusions were drawn : (i) Four main types of product are sold under a name commonly…

51

Abstract

1. From the information given to the Committee by members of the trade the following conclusions were drawn : (i) Four main types of product are sold under a name commonly including the word “vinegar,” namely (a) the product of the alcoholic and acetous fermentation of a saccharine liquid, the sugars in which are derived entirely or mainly from the saccharification of starch by the diastase of malt; (b) the product obtained by the distillation of (a); (c) the product of the acetous fermentation of a distilled alcoholic fluid; (d) the product, with or without colouring and/or flavouring matter, obtained by diluting acetic acid to an appropriate strength. In addition, strong acetic acid is available in various strengths, with or without added colouring and/or flavouring matter, labelled in various ways to indicate relationship with vinegar, (ii) The commonly accepted minimum standard for the purposes of the Food and Drugs Act is 4 per cent. w/v of acetic acid. (iii) Malt Vinegar as obtained by the brewing process may contain up to 8 per cent. w/v of acetic acid. This is diluted to the required strength and three strengths are commonly recognised in the trade, being known respectively as Nos. 16, 20 and 24, which correspond approximately to acetic acid contents of 4, 5 and 6 per cent. w/v. (iv) Malt vinegar as generally sold from bulk is the No. 16 quality and contains from 4 to about 4·75 per cent. w/v of acetic acid. That sold in bottles is usually the No. 20 quality, but there is also a small sale to the public of No. 24 quality. (v) The colouring matter commonly used in vinegar is caramel, although one or two manufacturers, probably as a result of the present shortage of caramel, may use other colouring matters. (vi) The value of brewed vinegar as a condiment does not depend solely upon the acetic acid content. Other constituents add body and aroma while some have a buffering effect which makes the product less sharp to the taste than a dilution of acetic acid containing the same proportion of free acid. (vii) Dilute solutions of acetic acid, with or without added colour and/or flavour, are now commonly sold under the name “non‐brewed vinegar” and are sometimes preferred for pickling purposes and for use on fried fish. (viii) The acetic acid content of such solutions, as usually sold, falls within the range of 4 to 5 per cent. w/v. (ix) Concentrated products, often known as “vinegar essence,” frequently contain about 50 per cent. w/v of acetic acid and before use require dilution with eleven times their volume of water; products are also available which require to be diluted with as much as 17 or as little as 5 times their volume of water. (x) An excise licence is required by any person “who shall make, prepare, extract, distil, purify or sell any liquors prepared or capable of being used or applied to the purposes of vinegar or acetous acid made for sale, not being a dealer in or retailer or seller of such vinegar or acetous acid only.” An unlicensed person cannot lawfully produce artificial or non‐brewed vinegar by adding colouring matter to the liquid obtained by diluting strong acetic acid. 2. In normal times malt vinegar is prepared by the alcoholic and acetous fermentation of an infusion of malted barley with unmalted barley and with or without other cereals. The process of manufacture is characterised by the fact that the starch in the cereals is converted into sugars by the action of the diastase in the malt prior to the fermentation processes. An element of complication has, however, been introduced into the framing of a definition as a result of war‐time difficulties. In 1942, in order to secure an increased output of “malt vinegar,” the Ministry of Food approved the addition of sugar to the wort. The amount that may be added must not exceed 15 per cent. of the sugars present in the wort as a result of the action of diastase on the starch, but since the sugars in the infusion which undergoes fermentation are no longer derived entirely from the starch by the hydrolytic action of the diastase of malt, the product no longer conforms to what the Committee would regard as the appropriate peacetime definition of malt vinegar. It was stated by the manufacturers that the analytical characterisations of the vinegar obtained in this way arc within the range appropriate to genuine malt vinegar of peacetime quality, and that no difference is detectable by the ordinary user. The Committee desires, however, to record its view that this use of sugar should be regarded as a war‐time expedient and should be discontinued as soon as the requisite cereals are again in full supply. 3. Distilled vinegar is prepared, as the name implies, by distilling vinegar. It is understood that the only distilled vinegar now on the market in this country is that prepared by the distillation of malt vinegar, and the Committee recommends that the name “distilled vinegar” without any further qualification should be applied only to distilled malt vinegar. 4. Spirit vinegar is prepared by the acetous fermentation of a distilled alcoholic liquid. As thus prepared it contains about 10 per cent. weight in volume of acetic acid and for retail sale it is commonly diluted to a strength of 4 to 5 per cent. 5. The nomenclature of the products obtained by diluting acetic acid, with or without the addition of colour, has been a matter of controversy in the vinegar trade for many years, and the Committee received representations on the subject on behalf of the Malt Vinegar Brewers‘ Federation and the Association of Non‐Brewed Vinegar Manufacturers. 6. The Malt Vinegar Brewers' Federation, while advocating that these products should be known as “artificial” or “imitation” vinegar, raised particular objection to the current practice of describing them as “non‐brewed vinegar.” Their argument was that the term is misleading as to the source, nature, substance and quality of the article and that its use on a label is an offence under Section 6 of the Food and Drugs Act, 1938 (since replaced by Regulation 1 of the Defence (Sale of Food) Regulations, 1943). It was claimed that the term indicated merely that a mashtun had not been used in the manufacture of the product and that it might be applied with equal propriety to other kinds of vinegar, for example, wine vinegar, molasses vinegar, etc. The attention of the Committee was also directed to the fact that in the Dominions and other countries where the labelling of foods is more fully controlled than here, these products are required to be so labelled as clearly to distinguish them from products made by a method which includes a process of acetous fermentation, and reference was made to the statement issued by the Society of Public Analysts and Other Analytical Chemists in 1935, after consultation with the Malt Vinegar Brewers' Federation, recommending the use of the description “artificial” or “imitation.” 7. On behalf of the Association of Non‐Brewed Vinegar Manufacturers it was claimed that the Society of Public Analysts had not consulted them before issuing their statement and that the use of the description “artificial” or “imitation” would have a serious effect on sales since it would convey to the public the idea that the product was inferior to “vinegar.” It was pointed out that the term “vinegar” originally connoted sour wine, and it was suggested that malt vinegar was equally an “imitation” of the original article and also “artificial” in the sense that it is manufactured by a process which is controlled by artificial means. 6. The two trade organisations differed in their statements as to the period during which the term “non‐brewed” had been in use. Whereas the Federation suggested that it had only been used during the last five years, the Association claimed that it had been in use to a gradually increasing extent for at least 20 years and that for more than twelve years they had recommended its use whenever they had been asked to advise in regard to labels. The Association agreed that the general use of the name by manufacturers dated from the case of Sutton v. Tame which came before the County of London Sessions Appeals Committee in 1937 and which is generally regarded in the trade as a test case on the nomenclature of vinegar. The proceedings were originally instituted under Section 2 of the Food and Drugs (Adulteration) Act, 1928, as the result of a sale of coloured diluted acetic acid when “table vinegar” was demanded. After hearing much evidence from both sides the Appeals Committee decided that the sale of a substance as “vinegar” or “table vinegar” without any qualification or explanation as to its origin being given by the seller to the purchaser implied that the product had been produced by a process of fermentation. In announcing this decision, the Chairman of the Appeals Committee remarked that “the fact that a very large majority of manufacturers add such words as ‘wood,’ ‘non‐brewed’ or similar words of that description to the products shows, in the opinion of the Committee, that the words “table vinegar” are not considered by the custom of the trade sufficient to describe it.” (Analyst, 1937, 62, 607.) 9. The manufacturers of the products consisting of diluted acetic acid have regarded these remarks as justifying the use of the name “non‐brewed vinegar,” but the Committee was informed on behalf of the malt vinegar brewers that this interpretation was not accepted by them and that had it not been for the war they would have taken all possible steps to challenge the name under the provisions of Section 6 of the Food and Drugs Act, 1938. The present position, however, according to the evidence available to the Committee, is that practically all manufacturers of the product are using the description “non‐brewed” on labels, and that the quantity sold is nearly equal to that of malt vinegar. 10. In reviewing the various arguments put before it the Committee has primarily had regard to the protection of the consuming public. If “non‐brewed vinegar” was about to be marketed for the first time the Committee would have considered that the description “artificial vinegar” was more appropriate than “non‐brewed vinegar,” and better calculated to convey to the public the idea of a product which embodies some, but not all, of the properties of malt vinegar. On the other hand, the Committee feels bound to take cognisance of the fact that the description “non‐brewed” has been in use to a greater or lesser extent for several years; that the description did not attract any adverse comment from the Chairman of the London Sessions Appeals Committee in 1937; and that no instance of a successful prosecution under Section 30 (1) of the Food and Drugs (Adulteration) Act, 1928, or Section 6 of the Food and Drugs Act, 1938, has been brought to its notice. The description “non‐brewed” probably conveys no more to the general public than that the product is something different from malt vinegar, but the Committee would hesitate to say that the description is misleading. 11. In short, it appears to the Committee that the importance of the description attached to this product can easily be exaggerated, and that if, as it suspects, the term “non‐brewed” conveys little to the general public the proper remedy is better instruction. It is suggested that the publication of a simple and impartial statement of the facts would help them to appreciate the nature, substance and quality of the different types of vinegar on the market. For the purpose of this report, therefore, and in the absence of an authoritative ruling as to the appropriate designation of the product, the Committee has adopted the alternative descriptions “artificial vinegar” or “non‐brewed vinegar.” 12. In regard to the nomenclature of solutions of acetic acid of strengths in excess of that suitable, without further dilution, for use as vinegar, it was suggested to the Committee that for the protection of the public it was desirable that such preparations should not be described by any designation incorporating the word “vinegar,” however qualified. Names such as “edible acetic acid,” or “acetic acid of edible quality” were put forward as suitable alternatives, but they are open to the suggestion that only those with technical knowledge would appreciate their significance. To the majority of persons the adjective “edible” would convey the impression that preparations so labelled are suitable for use without further dilution, whereas, in fact, they have hitherto commonly contained 50 per cent. of acetic acid and sometimes considerably more. On the other hand, it was urged that the chief purchasers of those products are fish fryers, who are thoroughly familiar with their use and that it would be unreasonable to prohibit the inclusion of the word “vinegar” in the name of a product which on dilution gives a liquid identical with that frequently sold under the name “non‐brewed vinegar.” The essential requirement is that the user should appreciate that the product is not suitable for use in the form in which it is purchased, and that he should know exactly how to dilute it to the appropriate strength. 13. The Committee was informed that several of these products are at present sold without any indication on the label of the extent to which they should be diluted before use. Although the matter is not strictly within its terms of reference, the Committee wishes to record its opinion that such information should be required to appear on labels, particularly since there is considerable variation in the strengths of the products now on the market. In the opinion of the Committee, vague directions such as “Dilute to taste” are not a sufficient protection. 14. A further aspect of the sale of concentrated products to which the attention of the Committee was directed was the danger that may arise from distribution to the public in small bottles. Although, again, the matter may not be strictly within its terms of reference the Committee suggests that consideration might well be given to prohibiting such sales provided interference with the legitimate sale of the higher concentrations of acetic acid, labelled as such, can be avoided. It would also be a further safeguard if all these products were required to conform to a single standard of strength and it is suggested that a strength of from 50 to 60 per cent. weight in volume would be appropriate. 15. If on further examination it is found practicable to give effect to those suggestions, there will be less necessity to rely on the name given to the product to secure adequate protection. Among the names at present in use are “Vinegar Essence,” “Concentrated Vinegar Essence,” “Wood Vinegar Essence” and “Non‐Brewed Vinegar Essence”; there are also a number of products sold under proprietary names, most of which suggest some association with vinegar. The Committee is of the opinion that the statement made by the Chairman of the London Sessions Appeals Committee in the case referred to above, to the effect that the name “Vinegar” without qualification indicates a product obtained by fermentation, is equally applicable to the concentrated preparations. It therefore considers that the name “Vinegar Essence” is misleading. In this report the descriptions “concentrated artificial vinegar” or “concentrated non‐brewed vinegar” have been adopted corresponding to the descriptions adopted for dilute solutions. The Committee recommends that products sold under a proprietary trade name should be required to use one of those descriptions either in addition to or instead of the trade name. 16. The Committee accordingly recommends the following definitions for the various descriptions of vinegar : “Malt Vinegar” means the product containing not less than 4 per cent. weight in volume of acetic acid, CH3.COOH, made by the alcoholic and subsequent acetous fermentation without intermediate distillation of an infusion of malted barley with or without unmalted barley or other cereals, the starch of which has been saccharified by the diastase of malt; and includes the product obtained by fermentation of a cereal infusion as aforesaid to which infusion has been added sugar in amount not exceeding 15 per cent. of the sugars present in the infusion as a result of the saccharification by the diastase of malt. It may contain added colouring matter. “Artificial Vinegar” or “Non‐Brewed Vinegar” means a solution of acetic acid of edible quality, with or without added colouring and/or flavouring matter, containing not less than 4 per cent. weight in volume and not more than 8 per cent. weight in volume of acetic acid, CH3.COOH, the acid not being wholly produced by a process of acetous fermentation; but does not include such a solution containing neither colouring nor flavouring matter unless so sold or described as to lend an intending purchaser to believe that he is purchasing a description of vinegar. “Concentrated Artificial Vinegar” or “Concentrated Non‐Brewed Vinegar” means a solution of acetic acid of edible quality, with or without added colouring and/or flavouring matter, containing not less than 50 per cent. and not more than 60 per cent. weight in volume of acetic acid CH3.COOH, the acid not being wholly produced by a process of acetous fermentation; but does not include such a solution containing neither colouring nor flavouring matter unless so sold or described as to lead an intending purchaser to believe that he is purchasing a description of concentrated vinegar. “Spirit Vinegar” means the product, with or without added colouring matter and containing not less than 4 per cent. and not more than 15 per cent. weight in volume of acetic acid, CH3.COOH, obtained by the acetous fermentation of a distilled alcoholic liquid. “Distilled Vinegar” means the product, with or without added colouring matter and containing not less than 4 per cent. weight in volume of acetic acid, CH3.COOH, obtained by the distribution of malt vinegar.

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British Food Journal, vol. 46 no. 11
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0007-070X

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Publication date: 1 June 1943

In 1934 the Milk Marketing Board came into being, and with it the “Milk in Schools Scheme.” and all its promises to provide millions of school children with milk “approved” by…

31

Abstract

In 1934 the Milk Marketing Board came into being, and with it the “Milk in Schools Scheme.” and all its promises to provide millions of school children with milk “approved” by County Medical Officers. Much effort has been made on school milk in this county. Often it is found that the milk “approved” does not reach the schools, but other milk does, which has not been covered by the arrangements made by the county council with the Ministry of Agriculture's veterinary staff. This is usually discovered when a school sample is found tuberculous, and arising from the subsequent enquiry. The steps taken as practised in this county are: (a) The proposed producer and supplier is visited, and his methods and cows inspected. (b) A sample of the “bulk” milk is procured for cleanliness and disease tests (the test for tubercle bacilli takes six weeks—this is unfortunate, but it is the best our laboratories can do). (c) The supply to the school is “approved” and the veterinary surgeon of the Ministry is requested to clinically inspect the herd quarterly—(no authority exists to tuberculin test cows without permission of the owners). Visits to schools are made frequently and samples of milk are tested from time to time. Those schools situated in convenient areas in the county receive “pasteurised” milk, which, incidentally, does not always satisfy the requirements of law, despite the cry often heard that pasteurisation is the cure for all unsatisfactory milk. The supplier has to be relied upon to deliver the “approved” milk—if he does not, the control instigated is somewhat lost, except the milk he is actually delivering is tested about once in three months. As there are some 250 schools taking milk this work is considerable. What control is operative in other counties I cannot say, but it is felt that the control of milk supplied to children leaves very much to be desired. As previously stated, steps ought to be taken to direct, wherever possible, “tuberculin tested” milk into the schools. At present this milk is largely wasted. Suppliers to schools, in the main, are not desirous of the business, and decline it whenever possible. County councils are also active through their agricultural and advisory departments. Very useful work had been done in this direction, but such activity is non‐statutory, and the Dairy Instructors may only visit farms when help is requested. The scope of this work has been enhanced by the inclusion in the war agricultural departments of a milk production section. Thus a further staff has been created, which possesses new sampling officers to sample milk, after it has been sold and received at the collecting depots throughout the country. This staff, which at the moment is declared to be for war time only, probably supersede numerically all the peace time milk administrators. The reasons for setting up the war time staff is to prevent losses of milk due to bad production, and to increase production. It is obvious that if the peace time arrangements could be consolidated, and a bold administration proceeded with, to compel the producers and others to comply with the law on the subject, there would be no need for a new body, which probably will remain after peace comes. What is needed, and this has been the case for many years, is a real drive for clean, disease‐free milk. The position as outlined in this lengthy statement is not due to the present emergency. The muddle has been in operation throughout all the past. What is required, in my opinion, is modification of the legislation whereby all the administrative control of milk, other than marketing (which the Milk Marketing Board can manage), is brought under the control of a central authority. If county councils are to continue in the post‐war period I am of the opinion that this body should be that central authority. One department, possessing the necessary classes of full‐time officers, including a section for educational and advisory work, could effectively and uniformly administer the law, which would result in the clean, safe milk which England craves for. I think it would be too much to hope for, whereby the Ministry of Agriculture's veterinary staffs might be included once more on the county council staff. On second thoughts, it may be well that they remain where they are, provided the staffs are adequate to cover at regular intervals all the herds, with powers to tuberculin test, as well as to clinically examine, when necessary. It has never yet been made a penal offence to dispose of cows which react to the tuberculin test, consequently a producer may, and does, pass tuberculous cows on through the open market to other producers. Surely the sale of such animals should be prevented as a first step to stop the spread of infection, and some means found of gradually eliminating them by destruction. An arrangement could be made whereby the county council staff may work in close co‐operation with the Ministry's veterinary surgeons, mainly by indicating where tuberculous infection exists as a result of milk sampling. The Animal Health Divisions of the Ministry are established throughout the country, each serving a small group of counties with veterinary staffs housed in each county. Such a new beginning would obviate the necessity of “putting the cart before the horse,” which is really the trend of things as seen in the establishment of the National Milk Testing Scheme. This scheme will show that large quantities of milk has a poor keeping quality, because of the lack of inadequate inforcement of the law. I say get the law administered in the first place. I cannot close without touching on the subject of marketing. For years milk producers have not been paid enough for their product. I used to think that better payment would almost solve the dirty milk problem, because this would enable the farmer to pay a wage which would attract the labour of more suitably educated persons who would thereby respond to modern methods. Milking cows properly is not the job for the village idiot: it is highly skilled work. However, judging by the small number of producers who have taken advantage of the Designated scheme, whereby they receive extra payment, doubts arise as to whether better prices would of necessity improve the nature of production. It must be remembered that the law has required milk producers to provide a clean milk, but, because for one reason and another this has not been done, the legislature, by the introduction of the Designated Orders, recognised clean and dirty milk, extra payment being arranged to induce the production of clean milk to those who had hitherto not carried out their legal obligations. All milk should be of one grade, conforming to a bacteriological standard of purity, and eventually all cows should pass periodically the tuberculin test. It is very necessary, however, to pay producers a fair price, and enforcement of the law would thereby become easier. You will never have a pure milk supply by the continuance of a policy of tinkering and patching. The whole set‐up needs altering, and vested interests prevented from barring the way to progress. There are other diseases besides tuberculosis which need dealing with in the interests of agriculture generally, but it seems that tuberculosis is the one which is the most capable of transmitting serious disease to man, with the exception of contagious abortion. The recently introduced plan whereby, for the payment of a premium by the dairy farmer, a periodic clinical inspection of his cattle is undertaken is good as far as it goes, but it is only tinkering about with the few herds which to date have adopted the scheme. Already official samples of milk from such herds have been noted to be tuberculous. In view of the large sum of money which is apparently available, but which in one way or another is being largely wasted, why not embark upon a bold scheme of disease eradication by compulsory methods, instead of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries scheme of “attestation,” which again is voluntary.

Details

British Food Journal, vol. 45 no. 6
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0007-070X

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Article
Publication date: 1 November 1942

The question whether grape juice may or may not be preserved with sulphur dioxide is one which arises occasionally as a result of a certain ambiguity in the wording of the First…

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Abstract

The question whether grape juice may or may not be preserved with sulphur dioxide is one which arises occasionally as a result of a certain ambiguity in the wording of the First Schedule of the Regulations. It is not a matter of opinion, as some would hold, but a matter of law, and, as such, should be fully appreciated by the legal advisers of local authorities, if not by Public Analysts. Item 4 of the First Schedule of the Regulations states that “Unfermented grape juice and non‐alcoholic wine made from such grape juice if labelled in accordance with the rule contained in the Second Schedule to these Regulations” may contain 2,000 parts of benzoic acid per million of grape juice and does not admit of the presence of the addition of any sulphur dioxide. The Second Schedule prescribes that, if the proportion of benzoic acid present in grape juice exceeds 600 parts per million, it shall be labelled with a declaration to that effect and also with the words “and is not intended for use as a beverage.” Item 5 of the First Schedule of the Regulations states that “Other non‐alcoholic wines, cordials and fruit juices, sweetened or unsweetened” may contain either 350 parts of sulphur dioxide per million parts of preparation or 600 parts per million of benzoic acid. Normally one would infer from this that grape juice to be used as a beverage falls under Item 5 of the Regulations, but that, if for some special reason it is not to be so used, it is permitted to contain up to 2,000 parts per million of benzoic acid provided that it is labelled to the effect that it is not to be used as a beverage. It should be noted that Item 4 does not read that grape juice and non‐alcoholic wine made from it may contain 600 parts per million of benzoic acid, but that, if labelled in accordance with the rules contained in the Second Schedule, it may contain 2,000 parts of this preservative. If grape juice were only allowed to contain benzoic acid as a preservative and if sulphur dioxide were prohibited under all circumstances one would have thought that Item 4 of the First Schedule would have been drawn up to indicate this, but no such indication is given at all. At the time that the Preservatives Regulations were issued it was fully recognised that sulphur dioxide was employed as a preservative in grape must. Whilst the Departmental Committee was considering the matter of preservatives and colouring matters the Ministry of Health issued a Report on Public Health Subjects, No. 24, entitled “Report on the Composition of Commoner British Wines and Cordials (Alcoholic and Non‐alcoholic),” by Dr. G. C. Hancock, C.B.E., one of the Medical Officers of the Ministry, together with a Report by the Government Chemist on the Examination of Samples. In the introduction Dr. G. Newman, the Chief Medical Officer to the Minister of Health, writes : “The most important of these materials are preservatives, and Dr. Hancock mentions the considerations which underlie the use of these substances in the manufacture of British wines and cordials. As, however, the question of preservatives and colouring matters in foods is being considered by a Departmental Committee of the Ministry he has made no specific recommendations relating to the use of these substances.” On page 4 at the end of the sixth paragraph Dr. Hancock refers to grape juice or must and says : “It is sent here in a highly concentrated form and is usually ‘sulphured,’ i.e., treated with sulphur dioxide in order to inhibit fermentation during transit.” Among other information placed at the disposal of the Departmental Committee was Dr. Hancock's report and in the Final Report of the Committee, also issued in 1924, paragraph 57 states: “Sulphurous acid and sulphites are extensively used in beer and alcoholic wines, to some smaller extent in non‐alcoholic beverages, and in preserving fruits and fruit juices, dried fruits, gelatine and sausages. … In the case of beer, wines, fruit and fruit juices the introduction comes partly from the treatment of the vessels of preparation and storage, partly from the materials used and partly from the actual addition of preservative in the course of manufacture or treatment for storage.” When considering the question of alcoholic wines, Foreign and British in detail, the Committee stated their opinion in the following words (para. 144): “Foreign and British wines are by no means closely related products. The former are the naturally fermented produce of the grape, while the latter are rarely derived from fresh fruit and are far more commonly prepared from a basis of dried fruits, rhubarb or imported grape must, fermented after the addition of sugar and flavouring materials, such as dried ginger‐root, orange peel, alcoholic essences or foreign wines. Considered from the point of view of preservatives, however, they have two features in common, (a) that the alcoholic content is very similar in each, (b) that sulphur dioxide is the preservative which is usually favoured (in addition to the alcohol present) to prevent secondary and other undesirable fermentations and sourness.” Instead of making any suggestion that the use of sulphur dioxide should be prohibited in grape must, the Committee draw their conclusion in paragraph 147 in the following words : “Our conclusion is that while in general preservatives should be unnecessary in alcoholic wines of ordinary strength, there may be circumstances which render the entire elimination of preservatives impracticable for the present. We think, however, that no other preservatives than sulphur dioxide should be permitted, and that this substance should not be present in amounts exceeding 3 grains of sulphur dioxide free and combined per pint (343 milligrams per litre).” This recommendation was adopted in the Draft Statutory Order issued in February, 1925, but, when the final Order was published, the quantity of sulphur dioxide permitted had been increased to 450 parts per million, making the law in this country agree with that already adopted in France. The recommendation made by the Departmental Committee was put forward after the Committee had commented on the fact that British wines are largely prepared from “imported grape must.” It seems remarkable that the Committee should have expressed the opinion that sulphur dioxide is used for sulphuring the casks, that sulphur dioxide is permitted in the completed wine, if it is not allowed to be present at intermediate stages, and that a Regulation was made by which benzoic acid only could be present in the unfermented grape juice, if this is not permitted to be present in the fermented alcoholic wine. When benzoic acid has once been added it cannot be eliminated and, as recognised by the Departmental Committee, benzoic acid is undesirable from the fermentation aspect. Had there been any intention to prohibit the presence of sulphur dioxide in unfermented grape juice, the Regulations would have rung the death‐knell to the manufacture of British wines, which have been produced in increasing volume during the last twenty years. Further, if there had been any intention to prohibit the addition of sulphur dioxide to grape juice, one cannot but express surprise that the importation of such juice has not been suppressed long ago by the Customs Authorities, since Section 8 (1) of the Regulations lays the responsibility for the control of Imported Articles of Food on the Officers of Customs and Excise and, through them, on the Government Chemist. The failure of the Government Chemist to condemn grape must containing sulphur dioxide cannot be due to his ignorance of its presence because the chemical analyses for Dr. Hancock's Report were carried out by the Government Chemist, and on page 58 of the Report No. 24, to which reference has already been made, analyses are given of two French musts containing 360 and 302 parts of sulphur dioxide per million respectively and of an American concentrated must containing 63 parts of sulphur dioxide per million. If we now look at paragraph 153 of the Final Report of the Departmental Committee we find that the matter of preservatives in certain non‐alcoholic beverages is dealt with in the following words: “We consider that sweetened and unsweetened fruit juices, syrups, cordials, non‐alcoholic wines and articles of similar composition such as certain well‐known proprietary cordials, are peculiarly liable to develop moulds and to ferment, owing to liability to exposure on the consumer's premises between the first opening and final consumption, and we think that on this account they may under present trade conditions need the addition of a small proportion of preservative. We therefore suggest that the presence either of benzoic acid up to 5 grains or of sulphur dioxide up to 3 grains per pint might be considered.” These recommendations were adopted in the Draft Rule and Order, issued in February, 1925, and there was no reference in this Draft indicating that grape juice was to be treated in any manner distinct from other fruit juices. The introduction of Item 4 in S.R. & O. 1925, 775, came as a complete surprise to everyone and the general surprise felt was mentioned by Mr. C. A. Mitchell (now Dr. Mitchell) in a paper read before the Medico‐Legal Society on Tuesday, April 20th, 1926, with the Rt. Hon. Lord Justice Aitken in the chair. Mr. Mitchell made the following statement: “The fourth item in the Schedule is one at which one can only stare and wonder how it ever came there. According to this regulation unfermented grape juice and non‐alcoholic wine made from it, may contain the enormous quantity of 17 grains of benzoic acid per pint, provided that it is labelled in accordance with Schedule II. I am fairly familiar with the cases which have been brought into Court during the last 20 years, but I cannot recall an instance of a non‐alcoholic wine (labelled or unlabelled) containing an amount of preservative equivalent to this quantity of benzoic acid.” Mr. Mitchell then proceeds to explain that the most probable reason for the introduction of this item into the rule is that it is intended to apply to non‐alcoholic sacramental wine, which is not to be used as a beverage, but which is taken a little at a time and is expected to keep for long periods, when the bottle has once been opened. This is, in fact, the position so far as I am aware and there was never any intention of any restriction on the use of sulphur dioxide in the ordinary way as a preservative in unfermented grape juice so long as the amount present did not exceed 350 parts per million.

Details

British Food Journal, vol. 44 no. 11
Type: Research Article
ISSN: 0007-070X

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