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Belgium has consistently produced world-class footballers, outperforming many larger football associations despite having a smaller talent pool and fewer resources. This paper aims to (1) examine the development pathways of Belgian professional players over the past decade and (2) quantify the role of opportunities in European leagues outside the “Big 5” for a comparative analysis of different player development systems. By exploring how Belgian players progress through various leagues and systems, this study seeks to identify strategic insights that can inform the development practices of both Belgian football and other European nations with similar constraints.

Data on player performance were collected over ten seasons (2013/14 to 2022/23) from 15 European leagues, including the “Big 5” (England, France, Germany, Italy and Spain) and ten other prominent leagues (Austria, Czech Republic, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Scotland, Switzerland and Turkey). The variables collected included player name, nationality, team, league, season, appearances, minutes played, age and position. For Belgian players in the sample, the youth academies they attended were also noted.

Belgian players have achieved significant success, particularly in terms of transitioning into the “Big 5” leagues. However, the number of “home-grown” players making appearances and gaining minutes in the Belgian league is relatively low (ranking 13th of the 15 leagues studied). In contrast, Belgian players rank third in terms of total minutes played in the “Big 5” leagues, behind Portuguese and Dutch players. Anderlecht was the most successful Belgian club in developing professional players, and other key contributors were clubs with consistent Champions League participation.

While substantial research exists on player development in the “Big 5” European leagues, comparatively little attention has been given to other significant European leagues. This paper addresses that gap by examining the role of smaller leagues in developing young talent, despite their limited resources and reduced access to Europe's elite competitions. The findings highlight the need for policy reforms and strategic improvements at both the national and European levels to enhance player development pathways.

The primary purpose of this study is to examine how fan attendance at team special events and player appearances impact fan consumption (as measured by merchandise sales). Insights obtained could shed light on opportunities for professional soccer teams to expand revenues through enhanced fan consumption of goods and services.

A sample of 499 season ticket holders were used to assess fan consumption by measuring merchandise sales. Ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions were run for merchandise sales as the dependent variable of fan consumption. The control variables were age, gender (male = 1, 0 otherwise), and whether an individual has children.

The key independent variables of attending special events and fan–player bonding were both found to have a statistically significant impact on merchandise sales. Results show that each additional special event attended generates up to $33.71 in merchandise sales for the club. Similarly, each fan–player bonding experience attended also has a direct impact, increasing merchandise consumption by $23.00.

The results of this study provide insights that can help fan consumption grow within the professional United States soccer industry and better allow team managers to make decisions about the possible benefits of holding more special events and fan–player bonding experiences. The findings also confirm the impact personal relationships with fans can have on the bottom line of sport franchises.

Though this study adds to the body of literature by expanding previous work on fan consumption, there are limited studies on the social aspects of consumption which are examined and analyzed within this study, particularly of note is the study of merchandise sales as proxy for fan consumption.

This study quantifies academy productivity within English football clubs that have competed in the second tier (Championship) between 2017 and 2020. Previous research has outlined that clubs situated underneath the top leagues have an important role in the development of elite professional players. This study aims to examine that level of the pathway further in England.

The utilisation of academy players was conducted with data from 33 eligible clubs, from 2017/2018 to 2019/2020. Two measures of productivity are defined for comparison: “Utilisation” (the total minutes played by academy graduates) and “Starts” (the number of times an academy player started for the first team). To quantify these measures, players and clubs’ indices were also defined through two perspectives: “global” (proportion of all games played from 2017/2018 to 2019/2020) and “local” (proportion of games the player featured only). Nationality and position were also included.

Headline findings demonstrate large differences between clubs for the type and proportion of playing opportunities created. The data outlines that academy graduates have greater utilisation and starts in cup competitions, particularly the English Football League cup. Clubs in the sample being relegated from the Premier League into the Championship recorded weaker “utilisation” and “starts” compared to those that competed in the lower divisions. Academies are producing and using a greater proportion of defensive players (goalkeepers, defenders, defensive midfielders) compared to more attacking sectors of the pitch.

This offers useful insight for academy managers, allowing comparisons between clubs. It has implications for future strategies around the role of the academy and approaches to generating player opportunity.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the migration of foreign football players that participated in the elite football championship in Greece and the impact of this migratory channel on the athletic success of the football clubs.

The study analyzed a database of all migrant and local athletes that participated in the professional Greek football championship over the period 2001-2013 and performed descriptive and regression analyses.

The regression analyses revealed a positive and significant statistical relation between the investment in foreign talents and the position of the clubs in the championship; however, this impact was more intense for foreign athletes after the formation of the Greek Super League (SL) in 2007 but on the contrary native athletes seem to contribute less to the athletic success than their foreign counterparts.

The findings indicated that valuable resources where spent after SL formation for the acquisition of foreign well-trained athletes. Therefore, this study corroborated arguments in previous research that a basic reason for foreign player migration in football is the increased revenues accrued from the media and sponsors. The study also provided useful policy implications for football managers for improving their decisions on this matter.

The present study fills a gap in the empirical literature and contributes significantly on the ongoing debate about the international athletes’ migration and its impact on athletic success.

The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between the diversity of team composition and the outcome enjoyed by those teams in test match cricket by using performance and competitiveness variables.

The paper examines 100 test matches over 13 years played by eight test match‐playing countries. It draws on 12 measures of performance and 12 measures of competitiveness across more than 130 players.

The paper finds that there is a link between diversity and outcome, but it is not always clear as to which direction that relationship lies. Team characteristics are found to be a function of member characteristics and not a simple aggregate.

The findings of the paper are probably not generalisable outside of international test match cricket.

The paper provides evidence that suggests that, in developing sporting teams, consideration must be given as to which activities are more important in delivering outcomes.

The paper adds to the literature on team dynamics in terms of theory and sporting context.

Over 30 years have passed since the enactment of Title IX, the legislation that required all schools receiving federal aid to provide “equal opportunity for both sexes to participate in interscholastic, intercollegiate, intramural, and club athletic programs” (East, 1978, p. 213). Since 1972, girls’ and women's sport participation has increased in high schools, colleges and universities, the Olympics, and professional sports. Researchers interested in the study of gender and sport have raised critical questions and conducted empirical research concerning the meanings of masculinity and femininity, the implications of sport participation, the meanings of heterosexuality and homosexuality, gender equity, and media coverage of sports (Dworkin & Messner, 2002). One persistent theme in the literature on girls’ and women's sport participation is the connection between athleticism and femininity. Historically, researchers have used the role conflict perspective or the apologetic defense strategy to examine girls’ sport participation. In this chapter, I analyze athleticism and femininity on a high school basketball team using a third framework.

VR games like VRChat offer players the opportunity to construct avatars mirroring their real-world identity, encompassing various facets including makeup, fashion style, body proportions and skin tone. This chapter explores how the real-life identity of players and the persona crafted within VRChat are related to one another and to what extent the avatar relates to self-perception. Avatar appearance can significantly affect how individuals interact with others in virtual environments. Appearance can also affect the degree to which the player can use the digital space for self-expression. Expressing self-identity through avatar design is therefore critical in establishing embodiment and presence in VR environments. Avatar design influences how individuals form social connections, build relationships and collaborate online, increasingly important in VR games like VRChat. Utilising Goffman's theory of self-presentation, this chapter draws on interview data from 20 VRChat users to understand the motivations and influences affecting avatar design. These choices are assessed in the context of creating an embodied actor in VR. The interview findings emphasise the role of avatar customisation in manifesting users' ideas of their authentic selves in the virtual realm. Supported by survey data, the insights highlight users' motivations based on personality traits, interests, social and personal identities, and cultural aesthetics derived from real-life experiences. This chapter underscores the complex interplay between real and virtual identities, highlighting the significant influence of cultural and social foundations on identity manifestation within VR environments.

Growing evidence suggests regional economic factors impact on individual outcomes, such as life expectancy and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the impact that player-specific and regional differences have on the number of senior international appearances football players accumulate over the course of their careers, for six UEFA member countries, from 1993 to 2014.

The research employs a Poisson regression model to analyse the impact of individual and regional factors on the number of senior international caps a footballer receives over the course of their career.

The results indicate that both individual and regional variables can explain the number of caps a player receives over the course of their career. The authors find that an individual’s career length positively influences the number of international caps accrued. Players born in wealthier and more populous regions accumulate a greater number of international appearances. Distance from the capital has no effect, however, the number of youth academies in the player’s region of birth has a significant positive effect.

The analysis is limited to regional variations within economically developed states. It would be interesting to test whether the correlation between relative regional development and international success exists in less developed countries. The authors only address mens international football in this study and cannot comment on the generality of the findings across genders or sports.

The results can provide insights for local football authorities and policy makers concerned with regional characteristics and those interested in the development of elite talent.

This is the first study to analyse a pan-European data set, using an increasingly adopted econometric method to understanding regional economic development – Poisson modelling.

The Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) legislative intervention around “home-grown” player quotas came into effect for the 2006-2007 season, aiming to protect playing opportunities and the development of indigenous talent. Previous research has identified clear differences between clubs and club types regarding opportunities for academy players. This paper aims to examine the outputs from six European leagues (France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Spain and England), identifying differences between national associations, club type, and on an individual club level. The paper investigates different league structure (in terms of allowing reserve teams in the professional leagues) and assesses UEFAs legislation in relation to programme theory (expected outcomes).

The study is based on playing data from 200 clubs and 3,329 indigenous players making their debut in one of the six leagues since 2006, and includes ten seasons of competition to 2015-2016.

The number of players produced and playing opportunities offered since 2006 are more prominent in the Spanish, The Netherlands, French and German leagues compared to Italy and England. For those clubs competing in all ten seasons, a similar pattern emerges with those four nations producing greater outputs. Four clubs significantly outperform others in terms of producing players reaching any top-six league first team, and for their own academy graduates. Additionally, the four leagues allowing reserve teams in their professional structure have a higher level of “output” for their academy players.

The paper discusses issues in the design of the legislation (not making nationality a factor and being unable to control other dominant variables) as key weaknesses to influencing change, and achieve the rationale cited by UEFA for its introduction.

Using the team performance‐club profit framework, a formal model is developed of the determination of the transfer fees paid by football clubs when players are traded for cash. It is argued that transfer fees can involve monopoly rents; the selling club extracts a share of the nonnegative differential between its reservation price and the buying club’s maximum bid‐price. It is shown that a necessary condition for the presence of monopoly rents can be established by testing whether buying‐club characteristics are jointly significant determinants of transfer fees after controlling for player characteristics, time effects and selling‐club characteristics. Using a sample of 1,350 English professional football transfer fees covering the period June 1990 to August 1996, it is found that monopoly rents may exist but the degree of monopoly rents may differ with the size of the transfer fee.