Powder bed density is a key parameter in powder bed additive manufacturing (AM) processes but is not easily monitored. This research evaluates the possibility of non-invasively…
Abstract
Purpose
Powder bed density is a key parameter in powder bed additive manufacturing (AM) processes but is not easily monitored. This research evaluates the possibility of non-invasively estimating the density of an AM powder bed via its thermal properties measured using flash thermography (FT).
Design/methodology/approach
The thermal diffusivity and conductivity of the samples were found by fitting an analytical model to the measured surface temperature after flash of the powder on a polymer substrate, enabling the estimation of the powder bed density.
Findings
FT estimated powder bed was within 8% of weight-based density measurements and the inferred thermal properties are consistent with literature findings. However, multiple flashes were necessary to ensure precise measurements due to noise in the experimental data and the similarity of thermal properties between the powder and substrate.
Originality/value
This paper emphasizes the capability of Flash Thermography (FT) for non-contact measurement of SS 316 L powder bed density, offering a pathway to in-situ monitoring for powder bed AM methods including binder jetting (BJ) and powder bed fusion. Despite the limitations of the current approach, the density knowledge and thermal properties measurements have the potential to enhance process development and thermal modeling powder bed AM processes, aiding in understanding the powder packing and thermal behavior.
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Taylor Davis, Tracy W. Nelson and Nathan B. Crane
dding dopants to a powder bed could be a cost-effective method for spatially varying the material properties in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) or for evaluating new materials and…
Abstract
Purpose
dding dopants to a powder bed could be a cost-effective method for spatially varying the material properties in laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) or for evaluating new materials and processing relationships. However, these additions may impact the selection of processing parameters. Furthermore, these impacts may be different when depositing nanoparticles into the powder bed than when the same composition is incorporated into the powder particles as by ball milling of powders or mixing similarly sized powders. This study aims to measure the changes in the single bead characteristics with laser power, laser scan speed, laser spot size and quantity of zirconia nanoparticle dopant added to SS 316 L powder.
Design/methodology/approach
A zirconia slurry was inkjet-printed into a single layer of 316 SS powder and dried. Single bead experiments were conducted on the composite powder. The line type (continuous vs balling) and the melt pool geometry were compared at various levels of zirconia doping.
Findings
The balling regime expands dramatically with the zirconia dopant to both higher and lower energy density values indicating the presence of multiple physical mechanisms that influence the resulting melt track morphology. However, the energy density required for continuous tracks was not impacted as significantly by zirconia addition. These results suggest that the addition of dopants may alter the process parameter ranges suitable for the fabrication of high-quality parts.
Originality/value
This work provides new insight into the potential impact of material doping on the ranges of energy density values that form continuous lines in single bead tests. It also illustrates a potential method for spatially varying material composition for process development or even part optimization in powder bed fusion without producing a mixed powder that cannot be recycled.
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Clayton Neff, Matthew Trapuzzano and Nathan B. Crane
Additive manufacturing (AM) is readily capable of producing models and prototypes of complex geometry and is advancing in creating functional parts. However, AM processes…
Abstract
Purpose
Additive manufacturing (AM) is readily capable of producing models and prototypes of complex geometry and is advancing in creating functional parts. However, AM processes typically underperform traditional manufacturing methods in mechanical properties, surface roughness and hermeticity. Solvent vapor treatments (vapor polishing) are commonly used to improve surface quality in thermoplastic parts, but the results are poorly characterized.
Design/methodology/approach
This work quantifies the surface roughness change and also evaluates the effect on hermeticity and mechanical property impacts for “as-printed” and acetone vapor-polished ABS tensile specimens of 1-, 2- and 4-mm thicknesses produced by material extrusion (FDM).
Findings
Vapor polishing proves to decrease the power spectral density for surface roughness features larger than 20 µm by a factor of 10× and shows significant improvement in hermeticity based on both perfluorocarbon gross leak and pressure leak tests. However, there is minimal impact on mechanical properties with the thin specimens showing a slight increase in elongation at break but decreased elastic modulus. A bi-exponential diffusion decay model for solvent evaporation suggest a thickness-independent and thickness-dependent time constant with the latter supporting a plasticizing effect on mechanical properties.
Originality/value
The contributions of this work show vapor polishing can have a substantial impact on the performance for end-use application of ABS FDM components.
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Justin Nussbaum and Nathan B. Crane
Projection sintering, a system for selectively sintering large areas of polymer powder simultaneously with a high-power projector is introduced. This paper aims to evaluate the…
Abstract
Purpose
Projection sintering, a system for selectively sintering large areas of polymer powder simultaneously with a high-power projector is introduced. This paper aims to evaluate the suitability of laser sintering (LS) process parameters for projection sintering, as it uses substantially lower intensities, longer exposure times and larger areas than conventional LS.
Design/methodology/approach
The tradeoffs in sintering outcomes are evaluated by creating single layer components with varied exposure times and optical intensities. Some of these components were cross-sectioned and evaluated for degree of densification, while the single-layer thickness and the maximum tensile force was measured for the rest.
Findings
Shorter exposure times and higher intensities can create thicker and therefore stronger parts than when equal energy is applied over longer exposures. This is different from LS in which energy input (Andrew’s Number) is accepted as a reliable process variable. This difference is likely because significant thermal energy is lost from the sintering region during the exposure time – resulting in reduced peak temperatures. These thermal losses can be offset by imparting additional energy through increased exposure time or light intensity.
Practical implications
Most methods for evaluating LS process parameters, such as the energy melt ratio and Andrew’s Number, estimate energy input from basic process parameters. These methods do not account for thermal losses and assume that the powder absorbs all incident light. These methods become increasingly inaccurate for projection sintering with visible light where exposure times are much higher (>1s) and a larger portion of the light is reflected from the power’s surface. Understanding the appropriate sintering criteria is critical for the development of long-exposure sintering.
Originality/value
A new method of selectively sintering large areas is introduced that could sinter a wider variety of materials by enabling longer sintering times and may increase productivity relative to LS. This work shows that new processing parameters are required for projection sintering as traditional LS process parameters are inadequate.
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Nathan B. Crane, J. Wilkes, E. Sachs and Samuel M. Allen
Solid freeform fabrication processes such as three‐dimensional printing (3DP) and selective laser sintering (SLS) produce porous parts. Metal parts produced by these processes…
Abstract
Purpose
Solid freeform fabrication processes such as three‐dimensional printing (3DP) and selective laser sintering (SLS) produce porous parts. Metal parts produced by these processes must be densified by sintering or infiltration to achieve maximum material performance. New steel infiltration methods can produce parts of standard alloy compositions with properties comparable to wrought materials. However, the infiltration process introduces dimensional errors due to both shrinkage and creep — particularly at the high temperatures required for steel infiltration. Aims to develop post‐processing method to reduce creep and shrinkage of porous metal skeletons.
Design/methodology/approach
The proposed process treats porous metal parts with a nanoparticle suspension that strengthens the bonds between particles to reduce creep and sintering shrinkage during infiltration. The process is tested by comparing the deflection and shrinkage of treated and untreated cantilevers heated to infiltration temperatures. The method is demonstrated with an iron nanoparticles suspension applied to parts made of 410 SS powder.
Findings
This process reduced creep by up to 95 percent and shrinkage by 50 percent. The best results were obtained using multiple applications of the nanoparticles dried under a magnetic field. Carbon deposited with the iron is shown to provide substantial benefit, but the iron is critical to establish strong bonds at low temperatures for minimal creep.
Research limitations/implications
This work shows that dimensional stability of porous metal skeletons during infiltration processes can be significantly improved by treatment with nanoparticles. The increased dimensional stability afforded by this technique can combine the excellent properties of homogenous infiltration with substantially improved part accuracy and open up new applications for this manufacturing technology.
Originality/value
The work shows how solid freeform fabrication processes can be improved.
Andrew Katz, Justin Nussbaum, Craig P Lusk and Nathan B Crane
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the use of a simple printed geometry to estimate mechanical properties (elastic modulus, yield strength) with inexpensive test equipment…
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the use of a simple printed geometry to estimate mechanical properties (elastic modulus, yield strength) with inexpensive test equipment.
Design/methodology/approach
Test geometry is presented that enables controlled strains with manual deformation and repeatable measurement of vibrational frequencies. This is tested with multiple fused deposition modeling (FDM) machines to assess measurement accuracy and repeatability. Printing orientation and some printing parameters are varied to assess the measurement sensitivity.
Findings
The test methods show good correlation with manufacturer material specifications in the X-Y plane and reported elastic strain limits. It is also sensitive to printing orientation and printing parameters.
Research limitations/implications
Further work is needed to assess the sensitivity of the method to particular defects and parameter errors expected in particular applications.
Originality/value
This method supports process monitoring in production environments and inexpensive assessments of material properties for hobbyist and do-i- yourself users. While it is tested with FDM, it should be applicable to other additive manufacturing processes.
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When port authorities or terminal operators set the free time or increase storage density, the decision is often made without a clear understanding of their effects on throughput…
Abstract
When port authorities or terminal operators set the free time or increase storage density, the decision is often made without a clear understanding of their effects on throughput and rehandling productivity. This is partly because practical methods that deal specifically with the effect of dwell time on throughput and productivity are limited in the literature; hence the motivation for this work. This paper introduces simple methods to evaluate the effect of container dwell time and storage policies on import throughput, storage density, and rehandling productivity. The analysis considers two import storage strategies 1) non-mixed - no stacking of new import containers on top of old ones, and 2) mixed - stacking of new import containers on top of old ones. The results highlight the effect dwell time has on throughput and rehandling productivity. For the non-mixed storage policy, the increasing container dwell time lowers throughput and average stack height - resulting in an increase in rehandling productivity. On the other hand, for the mixed storage policy, the increasing container dwell time raises throughput and average stack height - resulting in a decrease in rehandling productivity. Using the presented methods, port authorities and terminal operators are able to assess and quantify the benefits of their decisions regarding container free time and subsequently make an informed decision.
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Andrew Bradly and Ganesh Nathan
This paper aims to introduce the concept of institutional CSR and explains its antecedents, key characteristics and the potential implications arising from private firms providing…
Abstract
Purpose
This paper aims to introduce the concept of institutional CSR and explains its antecedents, key characteristics and the potential implications arising from private firms providing public goods and services in developing economies.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper conceptualises institutional CSR using key insights from institutional theory along with legitimacy theory. It integrates the antecedents of CSR at the state and society levels and shows how firms may respond to these antecedents within an integrated institutional CSR framework.
Findings
The paper derives six distinct characteristics of institutional CSR and presents a conceptual model to inform how institutional CSR occurs in practice.
Practical implications
This paper brings to the attention the need for private firms that undertake institutional CSR activities to engage more closely with the state to ensure better societal outcomes.
Social implications
The paper identifies the importance of resource coordination between the state and the firm for the efficient and effective provision of public goods and services. Without such coordination, moral hazard, resource imbalances and long-term viability concerns pose a risk for institutional CSR activities. It furthermore highlights important implications for societal governance.
Originality/value
The paper makes an important contribution to the literature on CSR practices within developing economies by conceptualising institutional CSR in providing public goods and services.
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Of the 1,321 samples of cheese examined, 27 were found to be adulterated. These included samples of ordinary whole milk cheese, described as “cream cheese,” and samples of cheese…
Abstract
Of the 1,321 samples of cheese examined, 27 were found to be adulterated. These included samples of ordinary whole milk cheese, described as “cream cheese,” and samples of cheese made from skimmed milk and sold as “Cheshire.”