Analysing the psychological capital influence on academic performance in an e-learning environment

Abstract

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to examine the evolving landscape of e-learning, which has become a transformative educational approach accelerated by technological advancements and the global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. It aims to explore the adoption and impact of e-learning across diverse educational settings, focusing on its effectiveness, quality and potential challenges. Furthermore, this research delves into the often-overlooked role of psychological resources and capabilities, particularly Psychological Capital (PsyCap), in enhancing academic performance among university students engaged in e-learning. By investigating the influence of psychological resources and their intersection with e-learning, this study seeks to contribute to a deeper understanding of the factors that shape successful e-learning experiences and academic achievement.

Design/methodology/approach

In this research methodology, data was collected from an e-learning institution, with a focus on students in various computer science semesters to ensure comprehensive representation. To minimize standard method bias, a random sampling technique was employed, and data collection was conducted with the support of locally hired research associates. Participant confidentiality and anonymity were carefully preserved, and ethical approval was obtained. The study began with demographic data collection and an assessment of PsyCap dimensions. Most measurements were self-reported, except for GPA, retrieved from the institute directly. The study initially involved 468 students, but only 213 provided complete responses, resulting in a 46% response rate. Demographic data included age, marital status and gender. The sample featured diverse generational representation, with 58% from Generation Z, 13% Millennials, 22% Generation X and 6% Baby Boomers. This comprehensive data will help analyse generational influences on e-learning outcomes.

Findings

The study’s findings underscore the significance of self-efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism in e-learning success. Higher self-efficacy positively impacts student engagement, aligning with previous research. PsyCap, which includes these traits, proves relevant in educational settings. Resilience is notably beneficial, aiding students in overcoming challenges and bolstering their self-belief. Hope enhances problem-solving and adaptability, while optimism fosters a proactive attitude and perseverance, both vital for academic excellence. These insights have broad implications for e-learning practices, emphasizing the need to nurture psychological resources. Incorporating PsyCap-based interventions can enhance the educational experience, promoting student success.

Research limitations/implications

This study has certain limitations that should be considered. It focused exclusively on computer science students, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Future research should encompass a wider range of academic disciplines for broader applicability. The study was conducted within a specific cultural and regional context, emphasizing a collectivist culture in an Asian setting. To enhance the applicability of the results, it is crucial to explore different regions and cultural contexts. While the study controlled for generational cohort effects on academic performance, further investigation is warranted to understand how different generational cohorts perceive e-learning. Additionally, the study suggests examining how psychological resources influence students' perceptions of e-learning as a stressor or motivator. Furthermore, a comprehensive study comparing the impact of PsyCap on academic performance in both e-learning and traditional education, involving diverse samples and various cultural settings, is needed to provide a more comprehensive understanding.

Originality/value

This research contributes by thoroughly examining the impact of e-learning in diverse educational settings, focusing on its effectiveness, quality and potential challenges. A novel aspect is the exploration of the often-overlooked role of PsyCap in enhancing academic performance among university students engaged in e-learning. This sheds light on the intersection of psychological resources and e-learning. Additionally, the study’s rigorous research methodology underscores its commitment to ethical and responsible research conduct. The research also presents valuable demographic data on generational cohorts and gender, offering insights into how these factors influence e-learning outcomes. These original contributions collectively enhance our understanding of the multifaceted dynamics of e-learning and the pivotal role of psychological resources in academic success.

Citation

Khoshaim, L.S. (2024), "Analysing the psychological capital influence on academic performance in an e-learning environment", Journal of Innovative Digital Transformation, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 101-117. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDT-10-2023-0031

Introduction

One of the primary global agendas adopted by United Nations members is to ensure that quality education becomes accessible to everyone by the year 2030. Ensuring the quality of education for all is a fundamental task in achieving the desired sustainable development goals. This effort aims to reduce social and economic disparities while better preparing students for an ever-changing world (Vallabh, 2018; Paletta et al., 2020). However, there has been a particular focus on enhancing the quality of higher education and achieving universal access to quality higher education due to its far-reaching benefits. These benefits include economic growth, cultural and social enrichment, as well as innovation and support for lifelong learning. The Framework for Action (FFA) chalked down through the “UNESCO Education 2030” emphasizes that mere access to education is insufficient for achieving a sustainable global agenda. Instead, the key factors are quality, inclusivity, and the relevance of higher education for everyone worldwide, and its contribution to global sustainability (Hozhabri et al., 2022; Paletta et al., 2020).

Higher education has also undergone significant transformations throughout history. It all began with the establishment of academies and libraries by the Greeks and Romans. In Asia, the University in Taxila was a notable institution. During the medieval period, the University of Oxford was founded, primarily offering face-to-face education. Subsequently, during the Renaissance period, the invention of the printing press and the onset of industrialization influenced higher education, leading to its expansion worldwide (Storey, 2023; Sharma et al., 2022). Moreover, higher education has become more accessible due to contemporary phenomena such as digitization and globalization. In the late 20th century and early 21st century, these factors have reshaped the landscape of higher education by introducing e-learning, making it more widely available. E-learning, also known as electronic learning, is a transformative educational approach heavily reliant on information technology. It enables learning to occur flexibly, breaking free from traditional constraints of time and place (Clark and Mayer, 2016). The outbreak of COVID-19 has further increased the use of e-learning across the globe, as the global education system had no choice but to rely on e-learning as the primary means of providing education (Mohamed Hashim et al., 2022; Hou et al., 2022).

This digital revolution in education has been significantly accelerated by technological advancements and the global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic. Due to COVID-19, over 1.5 billion students and 63 million teachers were compelled to turn to e-learning as an educational tool, replacing traditional methods (Valverde-Berrocoso et al., 2020). Universities are increasingly adopting e-learning, irrespective of discipline, age, gender, and location, owing to its potential to provide education comprehensively. E-learning has revolutionized education at all levels, from schools to universities. The successful implementation of e-learning, as perceived by users (both lecturers and students), is crucial for educational progress in the current era (Ayu, 2020). The quality of learning continues to improve with the advancement of new tools, delivery methods, and ongoing evolution (Aboagye et al., 2020; Alam, 2023). Nevertheless, some researchers have raised concerns about the effectiveness of e-learning. It was observed that students in online education performed less effectively than their counterparts in traditional classroom for microeconomics course (Brown and Liedholm, 2002).

Several factors, such as psychological resources, race/ethnicity, gender, and learning materials, can influence student outcomes in traditional and e-learning settings (Hiltz et al., 2000; Tsai et al., 2015). The role of psychological resources in the academic performance (AP) of university students has been neglected in the past. Psychological capital (PsyCap) effect on AP in e-learning environment should be observed as it is a crucial for enhancing academic achievement (Shahzad, 2022).

However, recent studies have highlighted the impact of PsyCap on students’ performance at university level (Chaffin et al., 2023; Luthans et al., 2012). PsyCap is commonly defined in terms of any persons positive state of development in psychological dimension through the four levels as “(1) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at challenging tasks; (2) making a positive attribution (optimism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3) persevering toward goals and, when necessary, redirecting paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4) when beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bouncing back and even beyond (resilience) to attain success” (Luthans et al., 2007a, b, p. 3). The higher level of PsyCap may enable students to engage in positive educational activities in an “e-learning environment” (ELE). Therefore, this study will empirically enrich and extend the literature on the PsyCap effects on academic performance (AP) in an e-learning education setting. However, this study seeks to address a notable gap in the existing literature. While prior studies have recognized the importance of PsyCap in university settings, it has predominantly focused on traditional classroom environments. To our knowledge, no prior investigations have explored the impact of PsyCap on student AP within an e-learning higher education institution. This study aims to bridge this research gap and contribute valuable insights, particularly in an eastern or developing context, facilitating the generalization of results across diverse settings (Babar, 2019; Hang-Yue et al., 2005).

Literature review

E-Learning is commonly defined as “a learning environment whereby not all participants are required to be present at the same place and/or at the same time that additionally evolves a sense of realism in that participants sense the presence of the students” (Ma et al., 2000, p 210). E-learning is undergoing a transformative journey, fuelled by technological innovations, the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the changing dynamics of work and education (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2016; Hodges et al., 2020; Gherasim et al., 2021). Its evolution raises questions about accessibility, equity, and pedagogical effectiveness (Means et al., 2013). However, it also presents unprecedented opportunities to redefine learning experiences and prepare individuals for the challenges and opportunities of the 21st century (Ally, 2020). As the e-learning landscape continues to evolve rapidly, further research and adaptation are essential to harness its full potential and address emerging educational needs (Li and Lalani, 2020).

Today we observe technological disruptive transformation that has turned digitalization to be the matter of every industry. The students’ expectation is growing for digital skills for leveraging online learning opportunities. The degree of students' digital preparedness can significantly impact their success and satisfaction with online courses (Ally, 2020). Previous research has shed light on the substantial gap between students' technological readiness and their performance. Recent studies have observed the complex relationship between students' technological readiness and their overall e-learning experience (Shahzad, 2023).

The recent studies have examined how the PsyCap of business owners can impact their digital preparedness levels and lead to successful e-learning tasks. Notably, the research findings have argued on a positive correlation between both PsyCap and e-learning satisfaction and a student’s level of digital preparedness. Additionally, the positive influence of PsyCap on e-learning satisfaction has been advocated (Storey, 2023; Sharma et al., 2022). These findings underscore the intertwined nature of technological preparedness, PsyCap, and satisfaction with e-learning. Previous research results have also shown some adverse effects of working from home, 'such as additional stress related to time management, decision-making autonomy, social isolation, and work-family conflict' (Shahzad, 2023, p. 20), which may ultimately lead to a decrease in AP. It is noteworthy to emphasize that PsyCap may plays a crucial role in managing additional stress induced by e-learning.

The concept of PsyCap is based on Snyder et al.'s (1991) hope theory, Bandura’s (2001) social cognitive theory, and the ideas of positive psychology introduced by Luthans (2002). Research by Luthans et al. (2012) studied the impact of PsyCap on student AP and provided a framework for examining its effects in e-learning environments (ELEs).

However, Resilience (RS) and self-efficacy (SE) are critical psychological resources that have been under examined in the context of academic motivation, both in conventional and e-learning educational settings. Interestingly, during the recent COVID-19 pandemic, as e-learning was widely adapted across the globe, research showed a significant and positive effect of higher levels of HP and SE on the motivation of students using online learning. Therefore, we can say that higher levels of SE and HP may lead to better AP in e-learning educational settings (Abdolrezapour et al., 2023).

The correlation between students' AP and their teachers' level of expertise within the traditional classroom setting has been well-established. However, the recent shift to emergency online teaching has presented a unique challenging situation. It has prompted a surge of research examining instructors' experiences in this unconventional setting. Researchers have turned their attention to university professors and their responses to teaching online during the pandemic, investigating whether they have adapted to the required technological competencies or if they eagerly anticipate a return to the conventional mode of instruction once conditions permit. The findings have shed light on the complexities of online teaching. This teaching method necessitates a digital environment and lacks the essential face-to-face social interaction crucial to traditional teaching. It has been observed that the higher PsyCap and the presence of facilitating conditions can be enabling factors for teachers facing limitation of exhaustive training for pedagogically technological rigour. These elements have proven crucial in ensuring teaching effectiveness, cultivating positive online learning experiences, and sustaining instructors' motivation to engage in online teaching (Arora et al., 2023).

The connection between college students’ sense of social support and well-being has been observed during pandemic in the context of online learning. The higher levels of perceived social support were connected with elevated satisfaction among college students taking online classes. Moreover, the lower levels of perceived social support were associated with heightened depression and anxiety levels (Huang, 2022).

Various methods of managing PsyCap interventions (PCIs) in the workplace are studied while comparing with the traditional PCI techniques. Carter and Youssef-Morgan (2022) extended the examination of traditional PCI techniques in contrast to micro-learning PCIs delivered via a mobile application. Their findings supported the robustness of PsyCap in enhancing the efficacy.

Furthermore, the advantages of diverse e-learning methodologies were observed. Further, a meta-analysis conducted by Avey et al. (2011) revealed a strong positive correlation between SE and academic success. This positive relationship between SE and overall performance has been observed in various studies that include academic performance (Chaffin et al., 2023; Shahzad, 2022). By investigating the impact of PCIs and their delivery methods, this research highlights importance of PsyCap to enhance individual performance across diverse areas of life.

As the constituent of PsyCap, Optimism (OP) is defined as a heightened belief in favourable outcomes in the future. OP tends to reinforce students' confidence in confronting uncertainties and challenges in the e-learning educational approach. Furthermore, students with a higher degree of OP are likely to perceive academic resources as a potent motivational force. This becomes an enabler for their pursuit of superior academic achievements and career prospects (Shahzad, 2022; Tariq et al., 2022).

In a similar vein, extant research has unveiled that OP exerts a positive influence on students' AP (Ruthig et al., 2004). Drawing from these findings, we anticipate that OP will likewise exert a positive impact on students' AP within the e-learning mode of education. This expectation aligns with previous research outcomes observed in traditional modes of educational delivery. The classical definition of hope is as follows: “positive motivational state based on an interactively derived sense of successful (1) agency (“will power”) and (2) pathways (“way power”)” (Snyder et al., 1991, p. 287). However, the latest development in PsyCap has enriched the definition of hope (HP) by adding the capability to escape uncertain and conflicting conditions (Luthans, 2002; Shahzad, 2022). Students with superior HP assets may have more motivation towards learning and goal accomplishment, leading to higher grades. This, in turn, increases their chances of achieving higher grades in the learning environment. In the same way, students with higher levels of HP have academically performed better than those with lower HPs (Curry et al., 1997). Therefore, it is anticipated that students with a higher level of HP positively impact on student AP in the e-learning mode of education.

Resilience (RS) is a key psychological attribute, which enables individuals to maintain motivation and adapt effectively within intricate and unpredictable circumstances. This heightened RS equips students with the capacity to tackle challenging tasks independently. This is true even when working from home and without the support of peers (Shahzad, 2022). Consequently, students possessing a robust level of RS are better positioned to excel in the ELE. This reflects their enhanced ability to navigate the challenges associated with social isolation and the distinctive demands of e-learning (Kinley and Ben-Hur, 2023).

Furthermore, past research has reflected the relationship between RS and AP. The students with substantial reservoirs of RS have consistently outperformed their counterparts with lower levels of HP (Martin and Marsh, 2008). This offers valuable insights into how students' psychological assets can influence their performance in the e-learning mode of education.

As formally defined in the introduction, PsyCap has four sub-constructs: SE, OP, RS and HP. The empirical research in the last two decades covers the effect of PsyCap on different desired outcomes, attitudes, and behaviours (Avey et al., 2011). PsyCap has been argued to positively affect the individual and group-level job performance across different industries and settings (Shahzad, 2022).

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the relationship between PsyCap and AP. Figure 1 compiles data from 43 articles (2012–2023) to provide an overview of the present research landscape. Figure 2 highlights the global significance and widespread academic interest in this topic.

The utilization of online courses at the college level is increasingly prevalent. Many students navigating the dual demands of full-time employment and academic pursuits. This study delved into various critical factors mediating influence of PsyCap and social support. The findings revealed significant relationships in this context. It was depicted that burnout and dedication are robust predictors of PsyCap. Furthermore, the pivotal role of social support was emphasized. The work of Barratt and Duran (2021), indicate that the possession of PsyCap is instrumental in augmenting academic success.

By summarizing the arguments of the literature review, we can state that despite the advantages of the e-learning education environment, it also poses certain challenges. These include the necessity for self-initiative, the stress of managing diversity and a high volume of tasks, and the demand for an increased level of engagement. In this context, the cultivation of psychological capabilities, such as HP, SE, RS, and OP, becomes imperative for performing well (Hazan Liran and Miller, 2019; Barratt and Duran’s 2021).

The recent study by Luthans et al. (2019) provided a basic framework for studying the positive effects of HP, SE, RS, and OP on the academic performance of business education students at university, using the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll et al., 2003). Similarly, a study conducted by Martínez et al. (2019) used the theoretical framework of the Broaden-and-Build (B&B) theory (Fredrickson, 1998) and COR theory (Hobfoll, 2002) to hypothesize the positive effects of each dimension of PsyCap on the academic performance of Chilean high school students. Following the same analogy based on the B&B theory (Fredrickson, 1998) and COR theory (Hobfoll, 2002), we hypothesize that SE enhances belief, HP encourages goal setting, RS provides the capacity to rebound from setbacks, and OP offers motivation to perform better and overcome challenges associated with online learning, as discussed above. Figure 3 illustrates the proposed model and conceptual framework for academic performance in an e-learning educational environment. A positive relationship between the four dimensions of PsyCap (SE, OP, RS and HP) and their positive effects on students’ e-learning academic performance has been proposed.

H1.

SE has a positive impact on students’ AP in the e-learning mode of education.

H2.

HP has a positive impact on students’ AP in the e-learning mode of education.

H3.

OP has a positive impact on students’ AP in the e-learning mode of education.

H4.

RS has a positive impact on students’ AP in the e-learning mode of education.

Methodology

The data was collected from an e-learning institution, selecting students from different classes of computer science degree programme to ensure a comprehensive representation. The random sampling technique was applied to mitigate the potential for standard method bias and lower the risk of error. The random sampling technique has been widely used in previous research, and researchers recognize it for enhancing external validity. It provides unbiased and reliable results (Bryman, 2016; Creswell, 2014; Sekaran and Bougie, 2019). Data collection was gathered through two locally hired associates who were in the final term of their master’s degree in management sciences and knew research protocols.

We placed a strong emphasis on safeguarding participant confidentiality and ensuring their anonymity. All respondents were provided with a clear understanding of the study’s purpose and were informed that their participation was entirely voluntary. Each participant was assigned a unique code to ensure confidentiality at every step of the research. Ethical approval was obtained from the relevant Human Research Ethics Committees (HRECs), underscoring our commitment to conducting this research in an ethical and responsible manner. In the initial phase of data collection, we gathered demographic information and assessed all dimensions of Psychological Capital (PsyCap). The majority of measurements were self-reported, except for the GPA, which was obtained directly from the students' learning institute. Subsequently, following the release of the current semester’s results, we collected data on the students' attained GPA.

Our study initially involved the selection of 468 students. However, we received completed responses from only 213 students, resulting in a response rate of approximately 46%. These responses provided valuable insights into the relationships we were investigating. Demographically, we collected data on age, marital status, and gender. Age data was categorized into six groups based on generational cohorts, as previous research has indicated variations in perceptions and behaviours in e-learning among different generations (Corrigan et al., 2013; Szymkowiak et al., 2021; Yawson and Yamoah, 2020).

Demographics

Regarding gender, our respondents comprised 69% male and 31% female participants. A significant majority (81%) of the students identified as single, while 19% reported being married. Our sample encompassed a diverse generational representation, with 58% belonging to Generation Z, 13% to Millennials, 22% to Generation X, and 6% to the Baby Boomer generation. This comprehensive demographic data will help us analyse and interpret the influence of different generational cohorts on e-learning outcomes.

Measures

Psychological capital

PsyCap levels were evaluated using a shortened 12-item PsyCap questionnaire, originally developed by Luthans et al. (2007a, b). The questionnaire was tested in Asian contexts by Shahzad (2022). The shortened version of the questionnaire contains self-efficacy (3 items), hope (4 items), resilience (3 items), and optimism (2 items). The Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree)w was applied in the questionnaire. The sample items were: “I feel confident contributing to discussions about the company’s strategy” (Efficacy), “I can think of many ways to reach my current work goals” (Hope), “I can get through difficult times at work because I’ve experienced difficulty before” (Resilience), and “I’m optimistic about what will happen to me in the future as it pertains to work” (Optimism).

The internal consistency (IC) for the SE scale was 0.65, which is generally acceptable. Moreover, the IC of the scales for hope (HP), resilience (RS), and optimism (OP) yielded stronger reliability with values of 0.80, 0.78, and 0.79. This indicated favourable reliability. The acceptable range for Cronbach’s alpha in social sciences is typically 0.60 to 0.70, while a score of 0.70–0.80 is considered acceptable for research within the realm of social sciences and education (Shahzad, 2022; Luthans et al., 2019). The PsyCap Scale has been widely used and recognized across various industries and regions, with hundreds of studies conducted utilizing this scale (Avey et al., 2011).

Results

Control variables

The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) tested the potential influence of demographic variables on the AP of the respondents. The results indicated that only generational cohorts had a statistically significant impact on the AP of the respondents (F = 6.47, p < 0.01). Notably, the one-way ANOVA results did not reveal any significant effects of gender or marital status on the AP of the respondents. This suggests that generational cohorts play a key role in shaping AP, while gender and marital status do not have a statistically significant impact.

Correlation

The descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, correlations) are presented in Table 1. Strong correlations are denoted in the table with a single asterisk (*) or double asterisk (**). The generation was positively correlated with the student’s academic performance (r = 0.23, p < 0.001). SE was also positively correlated with the respondents’ academic performance (r = 0.6, p < 0.001). Resilience positively correlated with student academic performance (r = 0.71, p < 0.001). In the same way, both resilience and optimism also positively correlated with academic performance (r = 0.67, p < 0.001; r = 0.64, p < 0.001).

Regression analysis

Multiple regression analysis was used to test the hypothesis. Step wise hierarchical regression analysis was widely used to assess the effects of various variables on the outcome variable (Shahzad, 2022; Cohen et al., 2013). The Step wise hierarchical regression analysis method allowed us to quantify the unique effect of each dimensions of PsyCap academic performance of the student in e Learning Environment Moreover, the stepwise regression technique was recommended to control the demographic factors like age and gender. The main predictor variables, PsyCap (SE, RS, HP, and OP) were entered in the later stages of the regression analysis, following the method used by Shahzad (2022), to quantify the unique effect and direction (beta coefficients) of each dimension of PsyCap on performance. This method also enabled us to quantify the variance (R-Squared Change) of each dimension of PsyCap and control variables (demographics) on academic performance in the e-learning environment. Figure 4 illustrates the complete process and flowchart of the stepwise regression analysis used in this study. Regression analysis is described as the best method to determine the relationship between variables and quantify the effect of predictor variables on the outcome variable (Cohen et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2017). This method has been used in various recent studies to predict the effect of PsyCap on different outcomes (Liu et al., 2017; Shahzad, 2022).

Gender, generation, and age were entered as control variables in the first step. In the second step, the mean value of SE was entered. In the third step, the mean value of HP was included. The fourth step involved the mean value of resilience, and in the final step, the mean value of OP was entered into the regression analysis. The regression analysis results, including the values of beta, change in R-square, and changes in F-value, are presented in Table 2. The “b” in regression results stands for beta, indicating the level of change in the dependent variable due to the independent variable, while the p-value represents the likelihood of a similar change in other instances. A p-value of less than 0.05 is considered acceptable in the social sciences; the lower the p-value, the stronger the significance of the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Additionally, taking a more lenient view, a p-value of less than 0.1 is also considered partially significant in social sciences research (Alexopoulos, 2010).

The results of the multiple regression analysis depicted a marginally significant positive relationship between self-efficacy (SE) and the academic performance (AP) of the students in an e-learning institute (b = 0.42, p = 0.08). Hope positively affected the student’s academic performance (b = 0.15, p < 0.001). The findings also revealed a substantial positive link between resilience and academic success (b = 0.12, p < 0.001). Furthermore, OP influenced the academic achievement of students enrolled in an e-learning programme (b = 0.07, p < 0.001).

Discussion

The findings reflect that elevated levels of SE among students significantly contribute to their success in e-learning environments. Self-efficacy (SE) is a fundamental psychological resource because it is reflected as the belief in one’s own capabilities to accomplish tasks (Bandura, 1994). The research is aligned with previous studies that SE fosters active engagement in the e-learning process (Chen et al., 2020). The students who are confident in their abilities do participate actively and communicate effectively.

PsyCap has been mostly studied in the context of businesses while this study has observed the significance at university settings (Huang, 2022). PsyCap with its four building blocks (SE, HP, RS, and OP) equips students to navigate the unique challenges of e-learning effectively.

It is found that students with greater RS are better equipped to comprehend and address the challenges specific to the ELE (Ahmed et al., 2021). RS enables students to bounce back from setbacks. It elevates their confidence in handling complexities in digital learning. The positive connection of RS and SE reflects that RS can elevate students' belief in their own capabilities.

The academic benefits of HP and OP within e-learning settings of university have been examined. Students with higher HP levels have been observed to demonstrate superior problem-solving abilities. They project greater adaptability to online education (Carter et al., 2022). Hope is a significant contributor to e-learners' success. It is reflected by an individual’s agency and pathways towards achieving goals (Snyder et al., 1991). Similarly, OP has a significant impact on AP because it supports a positive thinking and association with future outcomes (Luthans et al., 2012). It fosters a proactive attitude, RS, and perseverance among students, which are vital for academic excellence.

The aforementioned insights can broaden the implications for e-learning practices and strategies. Educators and institutions should recognize the importance of nurturing students' SE, HP, RS, and OP to enhance their engagement and AP. By providing these psychological resources, students can be better equipped to meet the unique challenges of digital learning. Moreover, institutions should incorporate PsyCap-based interventions into e-learning programmes. This can promote a more supportive and enriching educational experience for students.

As suggested by previously, it is empirically supported that positive emotions predict both good academic and job performance (Luthans et al., 2019). Students experiencing positive emotions tend to display increased engagement and a greater deployment of personal resources in completing tasks within an ELE. Individuals with positive PsyCap are likely to allocate more resources toward educational engagement, which leads to optimal performance (Arsenio and Loria, 2014). The personal resources (SE and RS) contribute to positive academic engagement and subsequently result in higher AP. Positive PsyCap cultivates heightened vigour and dedication in students. This enables them to meet the high demands of the e-learning education system. Therefore, students with higher PsyCap generally excel academically (Luthans et al., 2012, 2019).

In conclusion, the present study offers valuable insights into the interconnectedness of SE, HP, RS, and OP in shaping students' AP within ELEs. The relevance of psychological resources, within the PsyCap framework of in facilitating academic success and engagement within the realm of digital education.

Implications for the educators

Self-efficacy (SE) provides students with the confidence to successfully engage with challenging tasks. Past research suggests that SE elevate the tendency to perform better in various learning environments. It is recommendation for e-learning instructors is to divide tasks into smaller and manageable parts. There should be concentration on progressing from simpler assignments to more complex ones. This can provide the students with experience of accomplishment, which can be converted into higher performance and motivates them for even greater success (Luthans et al., 2012).

The experiential and active learning opportunities through collaborative learning tools and simulations should be offered. These approaches can enhance students' confidence and improve their performance in an ELE. Positive learning experiences, constructive feedback and encouraging statements can foster OP in students. This OP can lead to improved performance and students could probably tackle complex and challenging tasks with confidence. Past research recommends maintaining a ratio of three positive comments to one negative comment, which is more beneficial for students aiming to achieve higher AP in any learning environment. A balance is to be created between praise and critic (Goorha and Mohan, 2009; Luthans et al., 2012).

The technical issues and feelings of isolation from peers should be regularly monitored through improvement in deployed e-learning tools. Educators should provide a supportive environment that reflects flexibility in learning and a positive attitude towards setbacks. This approach can enhance students' RS and OP that psychologically pushes them to continue striving towards their academic goals (Luthans et al., 2012).

Finally, designing and delivering course content that integrates PsyCap into the ELE enhances AP as well as improves students' psychological well-being. This holistic improvement elevates their academic performance and provides practical experience for successful livelihood (Dweck, 2006).

Conclusion, limitations and future directors for research

This study supports a deeper understanding of positive organizational behaviour on students' AP in an ELE. The role of PsyCap is pivotal due to the requirement of psychological resources like continual adjustment, planning, openness to development and change, and a positive attitude towards learning for success (Luthans et al., 2019). The past studies have reflected on a positive effect of PsyCap on student engagement and adjustment. These challenges are commonly faced by students in e-learning. Therefore, the results will also contribute to understanding the dynamic and complex nature of student performance across different modes of education (Hazan Liran and Miller, 2017; Shahzad, 2023). In conclusion, based on the findings of this study and previous research, we can argue that PsyCap plays an important and positive role in enhancing the AP of students by effectively addressing extra challenges such as diversity, workload, continuous change management, and engagement in an ELE.

This study was conducted exclusively among computer science students. In order to enhance the generalizability of the results, future research should be conducted across various fields of study. Students from diverse cultural and demographic backgrounds need to be observed to enhance the generalizability of the results. A longitudinal study could be done to assess changes in the effects of PsyCap on AP. Furthermore, different moderators like cultural norms and educational practices could be tested (Luthans et al., 2010). A mixed-method data collection approach can be followed to identify similarities and differences in the impact of PsyCap on AP across various cultures and contexts. Additionally, the influence of new technology on the positive relationship between PsyCap and AP could be studied. This study was conducted in a collectivist culture and an Asian setting. Future research should study different regions to broaden the applicability of the findings.

Earlier research has indicated that experiencing greater positive emotions is associated with lower burnout, stress, and depression (Luthans et al., 2019). Therefore, it is crucial to explore the relationship between positive PsyCap and undesirable outcomes in the e-learning educational environment. The relationship between generational cohorts and students’ AP was significant. Therefore, conducting a more in-depth study to explore how different generational cohorts perceive the e-learning mode of education is recommended. Furthermore, the role of psychological resources in influencing students’ perceptions of e-learning as either an additional stressor or motivator may also need to be investigated. Additionally, there is a need to conduct a study comparing the influence of PsyCap on students’ AP in both e-learning and conventional modes of education, using a diverse sample and considering various cultural settings.

Figures

Figure 1

Subject coverage by PsyCap and academic performance variables

Figure 2

Frequency and trend of research on the relationship between PsyCap and academic performance

Figure 3

Theoretical background/proposed model

Figure 4

Results of step wise regression analysis

Table 1

Mean, standard deviation, and correlation

Variable name	Mean	SD
Gender	1.31	0.47
Generation	1.77	1.01	0.078
Marital status	1.19	0.39	0.19**	0.17*
Self-efficacy	3.37	1.41	0.066	0.26**	0.039	(0.65)
Hope	3.28	1.50	0.03	0.27**	0.09	0.74**	(0.80)
Resilience	3.47	1.55	0.59	0.31**	0.068	0.25**	67**	(0.79)
Optimism	2.81	1.71	−0.003	0.25**	0.077	0.58**	0.65**	0.68**	(0.78)
GPA	2.87	0.71	0.001	0.23**	0.05	0.60**	0.71**	0.67**	0.64**

Note(s): n = 213; Alpha reliabilities are presented in Parenthesis

^*p < 0.05, ^**p < 0.01

Source(s): Authors' own creation

Table 2

Regression analysis psychological capital and academic performance

	Independent variable	B	ΔR 2	ΔF
Step 1	Gender	−0.031	0.056*	4.10
	Generation	0.16*
	Marital Status	0.026
Step 2	Self-Efficacy	0.06 λ	0.32**	107**
Step 3	Hope	0.15**	0.14**	62**
Step 4	Resilience	0.12**	0.062**	30.74**
Step 5	Optimism	0.07**	0.016**	8.02**

Note(s): Dependent variable = GPA

N = 213

^*p < 0.05, ^**p < 0.01

Source(s): Authors' own creation