A framework for aligning e-government initiatives with the sustainable development goals

Abstract

Purpose

This paper proposes a framework that aligns e-government initiatives with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Design/methodology/approach

The study integrates a systematic literature review with case study analysis. The literature review involved an extensive search across multiple scholarly databases to identify relevant studies. Case studies were sourced used a number of criteria with a scoring rubric for selection and evaluation. The analysis of extracted themes and patterns from both the literature and case studies informed the development of the proposed e-government framework and illustrated the causal relationships among its components.

Findings

The framework serves as a roadmap for achieving sustainable development through e-government initiatives. It emphasizes critical themes, including inclusiveness, transparency, accountability, sustainability, partnerships and collaboration and innovation and digital transformation.

Research limitations/implications

Although efforts were made to include diverse case studies, some regions may be underrepresented, which could affect the generalizability of the framework across all global contexts.

Originality/value

This study provides a holistic approach, considering technological, social, economic and environmental factors, highlighting the importance of partnerships and collaborations in achieving sustainable development.

Citation

Ishengoma, F. and Shao, D. (2025), "A framework for aligning e-government initiatives with the sustainable development goals", Journal of Innovative Digital Transformation, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIDT-09-2024-0025

1. Introduction

The concept of e-government pertains to a spectrum of endeavours undertaken by governmental entities to augment the efficiency of dispensing government information and services by employing Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). Recently, e-Government initiatives have been bringing revolutionary improvements worldwide in productivity and transparency for citizens and businesses, offering improved accessibility, accountability and availability of services 24/7 (Ramzy and Ibrahim, 2022; Lyulyov et al., 2024). Improved governance leads to the least amount of corruption in government dealings through a speedy delivery ICT system by minimizing corruption tactics (Ishengoma et al., 2018). Moreover, e-government channels empower communication between governing bodies and citizens by enabling effective participation among all stakeholders (e-participation) (Mustafa et al., 2024). This advancement not only improves service delivery but also contributes to broader socio-economic development (Kumar et al., 2023).

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are an agenda incorporating 17 global goals created in 2015 by the United Nations that consolidate efforts to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure prosperity for all. They represent a socio-political and economic blueprint for progress on an array of economic, social and environmental fronts that collectively steer the course towards achieving sustainable development. E-government services are one of the most important areas which contributes to the SDGs (Zahid and Din, 2019, p. 27; Morell et al., 2020, p. 4). The implementation of e-Government initiatives is crucial to achieving the SDGs. As the SDGs guide the policy agenda and expand the horizons of global governance in diverse domains, e-government initiatives need to be linked to the SDGs to tackle global challenges comprehensively (Morell et al., 2020, p. 246). Formulating and implementing public policies that are aligned with the goals of the SDGs is vital to economic, social and environmental development and more than 193 countries have committed to achieving the 17 milestones to achieve the SDGs by 2030 (Koga et al., 2020).

While the potential of e-government services is enormous, there is a need for more research to explore the paradigm shift in e-government in the light of the SDGs (Othman et al., 2020). Recently literatures (Liu et al., 2018; Zanten and Tulder, 2020; Mustafa et al., 2024) advocate for the replacement of traditional “silo” approaches to development, and advocate nexus-based, innovative governance as a replacement in response to the complex concerns of sustainable development.

Zanten and Tulder (2020) emphasize on nexus issues, and the need to make the governance of economic activities more nexus-based, that is drawing on an integrative framework that will eventually cover all the observations in a comprehensive way outlining the synergies, challenges and trade–offs potential of e-Government technology to SDGs achievement. Moreover, Benito et al. (2023) notes on the impact of SDG implementation on financial sustainability of municipalities, while calling for an e-Government integrative framework that can be extended to cover diverse consequences of e-Government efforts at SDG achievement. This includes accounting for the fast-changing ICTs, that is emerging technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and blockchain technology, when devising the implementation mechanism (Shao et al., 2023; Ishengoma and John, 2024; Mwangakala et al., 2024). Thus, constructing an integrative framework for e-government requires interdisciplinary solutions, moving beyond the silo of subject-specific research.

Existing studies tends to look at e-Government in isolation or even individual SDGs, but rarely considers these elements in an integrated way. Still, there is a dearth of recent attempts in researching the linkage between e-government initiatives and SDGs (Othman et al., 2020; Dhaoui, 2022) and more intensive research is needed to provide a comprehensive, and practical framework to guide policymakers, practitioners and other stakeholders in this linkage. Thus, there is still a lack of unified framework that holistically considers the interlinkages between e-Government and the SDGs. The research question guiding this study is: How can e-Government initiatives be systematically aligned with the SDGs to address these global challenges?

The study fills an essential gap in the application of e-Government to the SDGs, by highlighting a knowledge deficit in our understanding of e-Government initiatives to systematically enhance their contribution to the SDGs and to general development and sustainability objectives. The study serves as a systematic and practical guide to designers and implementers of digital government strategies on how to appropriately integrate them in the overarching objective of producing a digital government that serves developmental goals across diverse socio-economic contexts.

2. Literature review

This link between e-government and the SDGs exemplifies an area where e-government initiatives embrace some of the most daunting challenges in society and can contribute to the global agendas of the SDGs (Lyulyov et al., 2024). This demonstrates the transformative power of e-government initiatives and shows that e-government can provide new solutions to help us cope with global challenges. Much of the literature on this topic centres around the challenges that occur during e-government implementation and the role of e-government in UNSDGs (Othman et al., 2020; Feleke and Lessa, 2024).

In a systematic analysis of SDG interactions, Pradhan et al. (2017) show that all the countries exhibit positive correlation among the SDGs, and that their synergies increase with the disaggregated data for the SDGs, underlining once again the interrelated nature of the SDGs, and the possibility of an e-government project addressing multiple SDGs at the same time. Kroll et al. (2019) also investigated the success in turning trade-offs into synergies for the SDGs, showing that there exists a moderate relationship between different SDGs, and that SDG synergies can be reinforced to attain sustainable development.

Furthermore, the study by Kostetckaia and Hametner (2022) investigated the impact of SDG interlinkages on the implementation of the 2030 Agenda in the European Union member states to demonstrate the importance of tracking, monitoring and management of these flows to foster synergies and mitigate trade-offs between the targets across the boundaries. The study (Castro and Lopes, 2021) argues that the development of e-government could be an important catalyst for a country to achieve the SDGs through tripartite empirical analyses and pointed out that the efforts of e-government can improve economic, social and environmental development.

Several studies have been conducted on e-Government initiatives and the SDGs (Othman et al., 2020; Castro and Lopes, 2021; Lyulyov et al., 2024). The studies focus on both micro and macro level in these areas, such as challenges in enabling the success of e-Government implementation and the role of e-Government in aggrieving to SDGs (Hooda and Singla, 2020). Nevertheless, the literature tends to narrow the focus on the correlation between e-Government initiatives and individual SDGs separately, without probing deeper into the subject from an overall or comprehensive perspective of e-Government initiatives and of SDGs (Aman and Kasimin, 2011; Samsor, 2020).

Theoretically, this study is backed by the Technology-Organization-Environment (TOE) Framework by Tornatzky and Fleischer (1990). The framework focuses on three dimensions: technology, organisation and environment. The dimension of “Technology” is directly related to the current study as it refers to the adoption of e-Government technologies, such as digital platforms and services; these technologies play a key role in achieving SDGs. The “Organisation” dimension relates well to the study as it touches upon governance and leadership at the national, subnational and local level, as well as institutional capacity, which are all critical to integrating e-Government initiatives into public services. The “Environment” dimension is also well aligned with the current study, as the dimension points to the external pressures of regulatory frameworks and the public demand for openness, as well as the importance of partnerships between different actors for SDG alignment.

3. Methodology

The study employs a mixed methodology, integrating a systematic literature review with a rigorous case study analysis to develop and validate the proposed framework. The literature review focused on identifying critical insights from peer-reviewed sources using academic databases with inclusion criteria to ensure relevance and quality. Case studies were selected based on criteria such as relevance to framework components, geographical diversity and data availability.

Literature review: Several scholarly databases, including conference proceedings, academic journals and reports, were examined to identify critical relevant studies. The utilization of inclusion and exclusion criteria in this study were essential to provide a solely academic reference ability of the literature. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were critical to maintain a similar type of academic emphasis throughout the literature, which were used to ascertain that non-peer reviewed publications and other such publications and journals were not included into the literature. The exclusion of the studies not in English was emphasized in order to maintain a similar reference language and keep the intent of the literature clear. Ensuring that the studies used for this literature were relevant to the study objective.

The research literature was collected within the renowned databases: Scopus, and Web of Science, IEEE Xplore, ACM Digital Library and ScienceDirect. These databases present the several numbers of journal articles, conference papers and book chapters to cover literature on e-Government initiatives and SDGs during the period of 2013 to October, 2024. The time span has been selected to ponder on the most recent and advanced literature available published and to thoroughly understand the arguments of e-Government initiatives and SDGs. Literature review followed a well-established search strategy that involved using selected keywords with Boolean operators to cover most of the existing studies on the topic. Keywords used in the search include “e-Government”, “Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)”, “e-Government and SDGs” and “e-Government frameworks”. Boolean operators used in the search are AND, OR and NOT. For instance, search words were combined with the NOT Boolean operator: “e-Government AND SDGs” and with the OR Boolean operator: “e-Government OR Sustainable Development Goals”.

From the literature search, the most relevant studies were selected and reviewed to extract the critical data on e-Government initiatives and their alignment with SDGs, covering dimensions such as definitions, implementation modalities, challenges and impacts of e-Government on each of the SDG. The synthesis process involves integrating various insights from multiple sources to identify overarching themes, gaps and patterns. This process entails mapping the extracted data into the various components of the proposed e-Government framework to see how previous analyses depict how the various components of e-Government practices can lead to the achievement of specific SDGs.

Case study selection and analysis: A structured and systematic approach was used to select \ case studies, ensuring alignment with the framework's components. Three key criteria guided this process: (1) Framework Relevance – evaluated using a 1-to-5 scoring rubric where 1 indicated minimal alignment with SDG-related framework elements and 5 signified substantial alignment; (2) Geographical Diversity – assessed to ensure representation from multiple continents, with a maximum score of 5 awarded for cases spanning four or more continents and (3) Data Availability – rated based on the quality, comprehensiveness, and reliability of accessible documentation, with higher scores given to cases supported by diverse and authoritative sources. The rubric provided a quantitative basis to minimize bias, with each case assessed independently against the criteria. An average score of 4 or higher across all three dimensions was required for inclusion. The scoring methodology facilitated the selection of case studies that not only demonstrated relevance to the framework but also offered sufficient geographic variability and robust data, allowing for a detailed and technically sound analysis.

The selected case studies represent different e-government initiatives relevant to one or more framework components contributing to achieving specific SDGs. To ascertain the effectiveness of the selected case studies to the framework and the SDGs, a close analysis of the relevant documentation, reports and scholarly articles associated with each case study was undertaken. As a result of the analysis, several key aspects were identified for each case study. These aspects of each case study were mapped onto the framework's components. The study methodology is illustrated in Figure 1.

Validation of the applicability of the framework was achieved through an expert evaluation, with ten experts (Table 1). The experts were asked to complete a questionnaire contained questions for the validation of every aspect of the framework. The scoring was from 1 to 5, where 1 denotes the lowest validity, and 5 denotes the highest validity. The scoring system was provided for the different aspects of the framework to gauge its information distribution including, theoretical strength, applicability to SDGs, applicability to e-government initiative.

4. Findings

4.1 Framework development

Following this, the study identified five dominant themes—Inclusiveness, Transparency, Accountability, Sustainability and Partnerships and Collaboration—as each was a key feature in at least 60% of the analyzed papers (n = 45). Hence, these five themes constitute the main dominant elements and the backbone of the proposed framework (Table 2).

The five themes—Inclusiveness, Transparency, Accountability, Sustainability and Partnerships and Collaboration—are linked to the SDGs, creating a comprehensive framework for advancing e-Government initiatives as follows.

• (1)

  Inclusiveness: The success of e-Government initiatives is dependent on their inclusivity. This means that everyone can benefit, especially those who are vulnerable or marginalised within society. An inclusive system of e-Government gives people access to the services available, regardless of their social or economic status, ethnicity or sex and supports various SDGs. Inclusivity is in harmony with most of SDGs. SDG 1 (eradicating poverty), SDG 3 (promoting good health and well-being), SDG 4 (providing quality education), SDG 5 (gender equality) and SDG 8 (facilitating decent work and economic growth) are a few examples.

Inclusiveness strengthens the proposed e-Government framework by ensuring equitable access to digital services for marginalized and vulnerable populations, addressing social and economic disparities. In India for instance, the Citizen’s Portal is an inclusive service, bringing various government services together under one site readily available to all citizens. It is also geared towards differences in culture with services in multiple languages. Another prime example is Brazil, where the inclusive digital government is the Virtual Health Library-a portal to health information made available to everyone, no matter the fact that they cannot afford medical care.

• (2)

  Transparency: Transparency is the essential guideline for decent administration that opens up the governmental activities and its processes to the public by allowing them to have access on the personal information, government proceedings, essential government documents and many others. Promoting transparency in e-Government initiatives by governments being open to its citizen on activities such as government spending or contract completion details enables citizens to better understand its government. Additionally, empowering public through transparent practices will heighten chances of their representative being trusted by people, which in turn makes institutions strong, and ensure justice at all levels.

Transparency enhances the proposed e-Government framework by promoting openness, citizen trust and accountability in government processes. For instance, the South Korean Government’s Open Budget Initiative exemplifies transparency by providing the public with detailed information on government spending and budget allocations, fostering trust and informed citizen participation. Such initiatives allow citizens to monitor government activities, including contract completions and resource allocations, ensuring fair use of public funds. This practice aligns with the goals of strengthening democratic governance and building confidence in public institutions.

• (3)

  Accountability: Accountability is where government officials and agencies are accountable for their conduct. This means that officials must be accountable for what they are doing or what they have done, receiving comments and feedback from citizens makes officers accountable for what they are doing or have done. The promotion of accountability in e-government initiatives aligns with several SDGs, SDG 5, SDG 10, SDG 16 and SDG 17.

Accountability strengthens the proposed e-Government framework by ensuring that government officials and agencies are answerable for their actions and decisions. For instance, the Indonesia's Citizen Voices platform exemplifies this by allowing citizens to report corruption and provide feedback on government services, thereby promoting transparency and responsiveness.

• (4)

  Sustainability: Sustainability is essential to achieve long-term developmental outcomes and is fundamental to the inter-linkages between e-Government initiatives and the SDGs framework. Sustainability can be referred to the performance of meeting the needs of the present generations but without harming the capability of future generations’ abilities to suffice their demands. Sustainability integrates with the proposed e-Government framework by promoting long-term development while addressing environmental and social concerns through strategic policies. Multiple SDGs can be addressed by e-government initiatives that align with sustainability. For sustainability, e-government initiatives can integrate multiple SDGs, that is, SDG 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15.

Introduction of such practices will help reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions whereby supporting governments of each country toward sustainability. For example, Denmark has implemented e-Government practices aligned with SDGs like SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy) and SDG 13 (climate action) by transitioning to renewable energy and supporting digital solutions to reduce carbon emissions. Similarly, Singapore's Smart Nation initiative uses technology to promote sustainable urban living by enhancing transportation systems and energy-efficient infrastructure, addressing SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities).

• (5)

  Partnerships and collaboration: The e-Government initiative is one of the methods to reach out to sustainable development effectively, and partnership and collaboration play a vital role in it. E-government initiatives can be planned and executed by involving and combining different approaches and stakeholders from government organizations, civil societies, business entities which can cater to the citizenry's needs from their priority.

Partnerships and collaboration strengthen the e-Government framework by fostering shared resources and joint efforts among governments, civil society, businesses and other stakeholders to achieve development goals. For instance, the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) collaborates with governments and private entities in countries like Ghana to implement digital agricultural services, supporting SDG 2 (zero hunger) and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth). Similarly, in Sweden, multi-sector partnerships have been pivotal in designing and implementing smart city projects to address urban challenges, aligning with SDG 11 (sustainable cities and communities).

• (6)

  Innovation and technology: Realization of the sustainable development goals is interconnected with leveraging technological advancements and innovations in various domains, among which is e-government initiatives. The influence of inserting innovation and technology in e-government initiatives in setting off a wider spectrum of effects of which align with different SDGs in different domains – industry, innovation, infrastructure and climate change. Governments can bring about better service delivery at all levels due to the emerging wave of disruptive technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), block chain and Internet of Things (IoT). Reducing operational, repetitive, errors prone tasks in government operations using AI will result in better and quality decisions.

Innovation and technology are central to advancing e-Government initiatives by enabling efficient service delivery, enhancing decision-making and aligning with the SDGs across various sectors. For instance, Estonia has leveraged blockchain technology to secure government databases, improve transparency and ensure data integrity, aligning with SDG 9 (industry, innovation and infrastructure) and SDG 16 (peace, justice and strong institutions). Similarly, South Korea’s use of AI-driven public service platforms has streamlined government operations, reducing administrative burdens and improving service quality, contributing to SDG 3 (good health and well-being) and SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth).

Figure 2 depicts the proposed framework for aligning e-Government with the SDGs.

Table 3 depicts the interplay that exists between the proposed framework components and the SDGs components, along with their benefits and challenges.

4.2 Case studies

4.2.1 Case study 1 – smart city mission in India

The Smart Cities Mission aims to build 100 smart cities in India. Its goal is to ensure optimal and sustainable urbanisation, efficient urban infrastructure and services and high quality of life while creating jobs and promoting equity, safety and education opportunities for all. It is directly aligned with SDG 11, and it aligns with SDG 1 because it allows people to live and work in greener, healthier and better-planned cities and can improve economic opportunities and basic services for all city residents, reducing poverty and inequality, as well. Furthermore, there is a solemn commitment to essential services like clean water, sanitation, healthcare and so on, which ties into SDG 3 and SDG 6.

4.2.2 Case study 2: Estonia e-government initiatives

Estonia’s e-government solutions have advanced transparency, accountability and efficiency in quality and quantity of public service delivery, contributing to several SDGs. Strengthen the capacity of institutions to promote transparency and accountability and empower citizens to make full use of their rights e-governance solutions have actively improved gender equality and women’s empowerment in Estonia SDG 5, by enabling equitable access to public services and decision-making processes and promoting gender mainstreaming. Furthermore, Estonia's e-government initiatives have fostered economic growth, innovation and decent work, aligning with SDG 8 and SDG 9. In addition, Estonia's e-government initiatives have enhanced transparency, access to information and effective governance, aligning with SDG 16. Moreover, Estonia's e-government initiatives have promoted partnerships, innovation and the use of technology for sustainable development, aligning with SDG 17.

4.2.3 Case study 3: e-procurement system in Rwanda

The SmartStart initiative in New Zealand is a notable e-government program that aligns with several SDGs, including SDG 9, SDG 16, SDG 17 and SDG 4. The SmartStart initiative is a digital transformation project that aims to streamline and enhance the process for new parents to register the birth of their child and access relevant government services. The SmartStart initiative contributes to SDG 9 by leveraging digital technology to improve infrastructure and promote innovation in public service delivery. In terms of SDG 16, the SmartStart initiative promotes peace, justice and strong institutions by enhancing transparency, accountability and efficiency in public service delivery. The digital transformation of birth registration and service access fosters trust in government institutions and contributes to effective governance, aligning with the objectives of SDG 16.

4.3 Framework validation

The results yield a generally positive affirmation from the experts on the theoretical foundation, applicability to e-Government and SDGs, the impact the framework can make in potential e-Government initiative and the feasibility of its implementation (Table 4). The theoretical foundation that the framework built upon received a general score between 4 and 5, showing that the framework was founded on a robust theoretical understanding of e-Government and SDGs. The applicability of the framework to e-Government and SDGs was also generally positive with most experts receiving their score between 3 and 5. This shows that the framework is relevant and effective in addressing the challenges and objectives that the e-Government and SDGs aim to achieve. As regards the impact on the e-Government initiatives and the feasibility of implementation, the framework again received positive score in the range of 3–5, implying that the framework is seen as having strong potential to have an impact on e-Government initiatives and is seen as feasible to be implemented.

5. Discussion

The framework presents a comprehensive and participatory approach to incorporate e-Government into the SDGs, including five key features – inclusiveness, transparency, accountability, sustainability and partnerships – and integrate them into an e-Government strategy for enhancing the effectiveness and impacts of e-Government for sustainable development.

The framework extends from theoretical construct to policy purpose and practical solution. This practical aspect for policymakers and practitioners is what differentiates the proposed framework from existing ones. By offering case studies and concrete examples, the framework shows how e-Government initiatives adopted by governments can address multiple SDGs simultaneously, and therefore maximise its impact and efficiency.

Comparing to other works, like Lee (2017) – the study focuses on the interaction between the development of e-Government and environmental sustainability‘s work focuses on the environmental effects of e-Government development, and the contribution of e-Government developments to sustainability. In contrast, this work looks at the impact of e-Government initiatives on sustainable development in a holistic way, as it takes account of the social, economic and environmental dimensions that underpin the sustainable development principles.

These findings have significant theoretical implications, particularly with respect to the TOE framework. For instance, the e-Government framework proposed by this study brings together technological, organisational and environmental factors, which are all present in the TOE framework as dimensions. Technologically, one outcome highlights digital transformation and advancing technologies such as AI and blockchain as key drivers in enhancing e-Government services. Organisationally, one outcome suggests that internal factors such as transparency, accountability and digital literacy play important roles in e-Government success. Environmentally, the partnerships, inclusiveness and sustainability advocacy underscore the attention to external pressures and opportunities in developing countries that impact the success of e-Government initiatives. The findings extend the TOE framework as they indicate that technological and organisational factors are not the only factors influencing the adoption of e-Government initiatives. Socio-economic and environmental aspects also influence whether e-Government initiatives support the SDGs.

Grounded on the outcomes of the suggested framework, policymakers should focus on building solid digital infrastructures and consistencies digital literacy programmes to cope with the challenges that inclusiveness presents. This entail investing in technology and digital literacy programmes to bridge the digital divide in e-Government services, especially from marginalised vulnerable communities. If digital infrastructure and literacy are developed, states can minimise inequalities and stifle anti-inclusiveness issues. This way, government can accomplish goals such as SDG 1, SDG 2, SDG 3, SDG 4 and SDG 10.

Furthermore, for greater transparency and accountability, well-defined legal and regulatory frameworks promoting openness and accountability for e-Government initiatives offered should be established. Open data portals, feedback mechanisms, as well as creating a culture of openness within government agencies will not only generate further citizen trust but also enhance service delivery. Policymakers should enhance public-private partnerships and inter-agency collaboration to guarantee effective decisions and service delivery, aligning with SDGs 16 and 17, to foster sustainable development while creating resilient, effective and responsive e-Government initiatives for the diversified requirements of society.

The proposed framework builds on theoretical knowledge in the field substantially, especially on the TOE framework to include five issues: Inclusiveness, Transparency, Accountability, Sustainability and Partnerships and Collaboration. The TOE framework covers critical issues related to Technology, Organisation and Environment. The proposed framework attempts to broaden the theoretical base of e-Government by highlighting inclusiveness and collaboration as critical ingredients of e-Government.

The incorporation of such themes makes the framework not only complementary to but an extension of the TOE framework, and its adaptability to the SDGs. Partnership and inclusiveness bring the socio-economic dimension of e-Government into focus (e.g., whether there are any obstacles to access to and use of online government information and services; how can collaboration promote mutual trust in e-Government service delivery?); transparency and accountability signals a set of critical governance considerations (e.g., is e-government conducted judiciously and openly?) and sustainability brings into focus the importance of the long-term aspect in making e-government more resource efficient and environment-friendly. This enhanced theoretical sense offers a more nuanced understanding of the potential of e-Government – a better analysis suggesting that technological and organisational dimensions alone would never suffice in the sustainable e-Government effort without addressing the social-economic and environmental dimensions. The framework thus adds a dimension to the theory, which would prove useful in practice, to create a sustainable e-Government.

It is important to acknowledge that low-income countries, especially those with infrastructural deficits, digital literacy gaps or different governance structures, may encounter unique challenges when implementing e-government initiatives. These factors might necessitate additional considerations or adaptations to the framework. To address this limitation, future research should expand the geographical scope of empirical testing to include countries with diverse socio-economic contexts and e-government maturity levels. Such testing would allow for a more comprehensive evaluation of the framework’s applicability and its potential need for customization in different environments.

The framework has the potential to be integrated with emerging technologies such as AI and blockchain in future research with specific use cases while assessing the challenges and benefits of their application across different socio-economic contexts. For instance, AI has the potential to enhance public service delivery through automated systems that handle high-volume, repetitive tasks, such as processing government forms or responding to citizen queries. One scenario might involve deploying AI-driven chatbots to provide 24/7 access to e-government services, thereby improving inclusiveness, especially in rural or underserved areas where access to government offices is limited. Additionally, AI could analyse large datasets in real-time to identify patterns in public spending or inefficiencies in service delivery, increasing transparency and enabling better decision-making. However, future studies should also address challenges like ensuring data privacy and mitigating algorithmic biases, which could disproportionately affect marginalized communities.

Conversely, blockchain could serve as a tool to enhance trust and accountability within e-government systems; for example, blockchain-based digital identities could securely verify citizens' access to services, reducing fraud and ensuring that only eligible individuals benefit from social programs. Another potential application involves utilizing blockchain for secure, tamper-proof government procurement processes, where the entire process—from bid submission to contract award—could be transparently recorded on a distributed ledger, facilitating audits by citizens and oversight bodies. Future research could further investigate the scalability of blockchain solutions in low-resource environments with limited technological infrastructure and assess how these systems can be designed to be both cost-effective and user-friendly for governments in low-income countries.

The implementation of the proposed framework might faces a number of challenges, most of which are rooted in systemic challenges common within public sector institutions. Political resistance remains a formidable obstacle, often arising from shifts in leadership priorities, misalignment of goals among decision-makers or competing policy agendas that deprioritize technological reforms. Bureaucratic inertia further compounds this issue by creating rigid organizational structures, entrenched administrative processes and a lack of flexibility necessary to adopt new systems. Additionally, the limited institutional capacity in many public sector organizations, characterized by gaps in technical expertise, deficient infrastructure and inadequate coordination mechanisms, impairs the ability to operationalize and maintain the proposed framework. Funding constraints exacerbate these difficulties, as budgetary pressures force governments to prioritize immediate demands over long-term strategic investments, while complex procurement processes further delay timely financial allocations.

Overcoming these barriers necessitates a multi-pronged and strategic approach. Political resistance can be mitigated through strong, evidence-based advocacy that highlights the tangible benefits and long-term value of the proposed framework, thereby fostering cross-party consensus and shared vision. Institutional capacity can be strengthened by implementing comprehensive training programs, investing in critical infrastructure and promoting inter-agency collaboration to leverage collective expertise and resources. Addressing funding gaps requires innovative strategies, such as fostering public-private partnerships, exploring international financing opportunities and utilizing performance-based financing mechanisms. Bureaucratic inertia can be tackled by streamlining administrative workflows, reducing unnecessary layers of oversight and embedding a culture of innovation and accountability through leadership support and capacity building. A collaborative and transparent approach will be essential in implementing the proposed framework effectively and ensuring its sustainability amidst these systemic challenges.

One limitation of the study is the exclusion of earlier foundational research predating 2013, which may have provided some insights into the initial development and theoretical underpinnings of e-Government and its linkages to SDGs. However, this exclusion has minimal impact on the study's findings because the selected time frame focuses on recent trends, technological advancements and innovative implementation strategies that are more reflective of current e-Government practices and their alignment with SDGs. Additionally, the methodologies and theoretical frameworks established in earlier studies have already been well-integrated into more recent research, ensuring the findings remain comprehensive and relevant.

The practical application of the proposed framework in real-world scenarios involves integrating it into e-government initiatives to align with SDGs effectively. Policymakers and practitioners can utilize this framework to assess current technological gaps, identify priority areas and design evidence-based strategies that address barriers such as political resistance, resource constraints and institutional challenges. Actionable steps include conducting capacity-building programs to strengthen institutional capabilities, fostering multi-sectoral partnerships to ensure stakeholder buy-in, implementing adaptive financing models to overcome funding limitations and promoting transparency and accountability in e-government projects. Furthermore, regular monitoring and evaluation of progress using performance indicators will ensure the framework’s objectives are met while allowing adjustments in response to emerging challenges.

6. Conclusion and future work

The framework proposed by this paper is a significant element in aligning e-government initiatives with the SDGs. The framework is an inclusive, integrated approach considering technological, social, economic and environmental factors crucial for sustainable development. Inclusivity is considered important as it ensures that no one is left behind. Sustainability also comes into play once transparency and accountability issues are considered, as resources should be sufficiently available throughout. Together with this, partnerships and collaborations with various organizations ensure that multiple views are considered, and initiative results are properly reflected. Technological innovation also comes as an issue of the importance of continuity in digital transformation, which is necessary for successful government operations. Therefore, the proposed framework presents a holistic perspective that all governments need to focus on to develop effective and successful development initiatives aligned with the SDGs while maintaining ensured sustainability throughout.

The framework should be further validated and refined in e-Government contexts at different stages of SDG implementation and across diverse countries (with different e-Government maturity levels and priorities for SDGs). Empirical studies of the framework in countries at different maturity levels, and with different priorities for SDG targets, can evaluate the adaptability of the framework, and its effectiveness for different contexts – where the challenges and approaches to achieve goals can vary due to socio-economic conditions and technological landscape. Research could also investigate how the framework can be adapted to integrate emerging technologies such as AI and blockchain technology.

To ensure the framework remains relevant and effective, future research should focus on the following specific questions: (1) How can the framework be implemented in developing countries with limited technological infrastructure, and what unique challenges do these contexts present? (2) What metrics and evaluation methods can be utilized to assess the effectiveness of e-government initiatives based on this framework? We recommend employing mixed-methods research approaches that combine qualitative case studies with quantitative surveys to gather comprehensive data on these aspects.

Furthermore, as digital landscapes continue to evolve, the framework must adapt to accommodate pressing global challenges. This includes an exploration of strategies to enhance cybersecurity measures within e-government systems and ensure data privacy for citizens. Future studies should examine best practices in these areas, analysing case studies from jurisdictions that have successfully integrated robust security protocols into their e-government frameworks. By addressing these challenges, researchers can contribute to the development of a more resilient and trustworthy digital governance system.

Figures

Figure 1

Methodology used in the study

Figure 2

Framework for aligning e-government with the SDGs

Table 1

Experts information

Expert	Role	Location
Expert 1	Researcher in E-Governance and SDGs	Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Expert 2	Public Sector Technology Integration Specialist	Dodoma, Tanzania
Expert 3	SDG Implementation Consultant	Arusha, Tanzania
Expert 4	Governance and Technology Expert	Dodoma Tanzania
Expert 5	Sustainable Business Practices Expert	Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Expert 6	ICT and Policy Analyst	Mwanza, Tanzania
Expert 7	E-Government and Development Researcher	Dodoma, Tanzania
Expert 8	Financial Technology Specialist	Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Expert 9	Supply Chain Innovation Specialist	Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Expert 10	Global SDG and E-Governance Policy Expert	Mwanza, Tanzania

Source(s): Table by authors

Table 2

Five themes of the framework development and supporting literature

Theme	Findings	Description of findings	Implications for framework development	References
Inclusiveness	Ensures that all citizens, including marginalized groups, have access to e-Government services. Supports equitable service delivery	Ensures that digital services are accessible to diverse populations, promoting equity and reducing digital divides	The framework must include measures to ensure equitable access and address barriers to inclusion, such as digital literacy and accessibility improvements	Aman and Kasimin (2011), Khan et al. (2021), Nimer et al. (2022), Lee (2017), Morell et al. (2020), Dhaoui (2022), Kumar et al. (2023), Zahid and Din (2019), Othman et al. (2020), Ishengoma (2024), Demirhan (2023), Weigl et al. (2024)
Transparency	Promotes open access to information, reducing corruption and increasing public trust in government services	Enhances the visibility of government operations and decision-making processes, fostering trust and reducing opportunities for corruption	The framework should incorporate mechanisms for transparency, such as open data platforms and accessible reporting systems, to build public trust and accountability	Hooda and Singla (2020), Castro and Lopes (2021), Othman et al. (2020), Nimer et al. (2022), Lee (2017), Shao et al. (2023), Benito et al. (2023), Ramzy and Ibrahim (2022), Zanten and Tulder (2020), Hochstetter et al. (2023), Gu et al. (2023), Weigl et al. (2024)
Accountability	Enhances governance by ensuring public officials are held responsible through mechanisms like audit trails and performance evaluations	Facilitates the monitoring of government actions and decisions, ensuring responsible management and adherence to policies	The framework should integrate accountability measures, such as audit trails and performance metrics, to ensure effective oversight and responsibility	Dhaoui (2022), Lee (2017), Hooda and Singla (2020), Aman and Kasimin (2011), Kumar et al. (2023), Shao et al. (2023), Khan et al. (2021), Ramzy and Ibrahim (2022), Othman et al. (2020), Hochstetter et al. (2023), Mustafa et al. (2024), Srivastava et al. (2024)
Sustainability	Focuses on long-term resource efficiency, environmental impact and service continuity	Promotes practices that minimize environmental impact and ensure the longevity and resilience of e-Government systems	The framework should include sustainability principles, ensuring that e-Government initiatives are resource-efficient, environmentally friendly and resilient	Ishengoma (2014), Liu et al. (2018), Zahid and Din (2019), Morell et al. (2020), Dhaoui (2022), Khan et al. (2021), Zanten and Tulder (2020), Shao et al. (2023), Benito et al. (2023), Othman et al. (2020), Demirhan (2023), Mustafa et al. (2024), Feleke and Lessa (2024)
Partnerships and collaboration	Emphasizes the importance of collaboration between governments, private sectors and civil society to enhance e-Government services	Facilitates resource sharing, knowledge exchange and joint problem-solving to improve the effectiveness and reach of e-Government solutions	The framework should foster partnerships and collaborative efforts, integrating inputs from various stakeholders to enhance the impact and effectiveness of e-Government initiatives	Othman et al. (2020), Nimer et al. (2022). Khan et al. (2021), Lee (2017), Morell et al. (2020), Ishengoma et al. (2022), Ramzy and Ibrahim (2022), Zanten and Tulder (2020), Dhaoui (2022), Pandey (2023), Feleke and Lessa (2024)
Innovation and digital transformation	Leverages emerging technologies like AI and blockchain to modernize and enhance e-Government services	Drives modernization through the adoption of advanced technologies, improving service delivery and operational efficiency	The framework should encourage technological innovation and digital transformation, integrating advanced technologies to enhance e-Government services	Lee (2017), Shao et al. (2023), Kumar et al. (2023), Dhaoui (2022), Nimer et al. (2022), Morell et al. (2020), Khan et al. (2021), Mambile and Ishengoma (2024), Othman et al. (2020), Liu et al. (2018), Al-Besher and Kumar (2022), Shao et al. (2024), Demirhan (2023), Ishengoma and John (2024)

Source(s): Table by authors

Table 3

Integrated components for SDG-aligned e-government initiatives

Framework component	SDGs linked	Examples	Benefits	Challenges
Inclusiveness	SDG 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 11	Online platforms providing social services to marginalized groups and vulnerable groups	Reduces inequalities, enhances access to essential services, increases citizen participation	Requires robust digital infrastructure and digital literacy among citizens
Transparency	SDG 5, 8, 9, 16, 17	Online portals for open data sharing; Social media channels for public feedback and complaint mechanisms	Increases government accountability, promotes public trust and, enhances public service delivery	Requires political will and culture of transparency, capacity building for government officials
Accountability	SDG 3, 6, 9, 16, 14	Online platforms for citizen feedback and complaints; E-voting systems to ensure election transparency	Promotes good governance, reduces corruption, enhances citizen trust and confidence	Requires legal and regulatory frameworks, capacity building for government officials
Sustainability	SDG 7, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15	E-procurement systems for sustainable procurement; E-waste management systems for environmentally-friendly disposal	Ensures long-term viability and effectiveness of e-government initiatives and contributes to environmental sustainability	Requires integration of sustainability principles in e-government planning and decision-making
Partnerships and collaboration	SDG 16, 17, 9, 11	Public-private partnerships for e-government service provision; Collaboration among different government agencies for data sharing	Encourages knowledge sharing and innovation and enhances service delivery and efficiency	Requires effective communication and coordination among different stakeholders
Innovation and digital transformation	SDG 9, 16, 17, 4	Increases efficiency and effectiveness of e-government initiatives, promotes digital innovation and creativity	Improved service delivery and decision-making	Use of emerging technologies for improved service delivery and decision-making; Digital upskilling programs for government officials

Source(s): Table by authors

Table 4

Framework validation results

Expert	Theoretical foundation	Applicability to e-government and SDGs	Impact on e-government initiatives	Feasibility of implementation	Overall validity
Expert 1	4	4	4	4	4
Expert 2	5	4	4	5	4.5
Expert 3	5	4	4	5	4.5
Expert 4	4	3	4	3	3.5
Expert 5	4	4	4	4	4
Expert 6	5	5	5	4	4.75
Expert 7	3	3	4	3	3.25
Expert 8	4	4	4	4	4
Expert 9	4	4	3	4	3.75
Expert 10	4	4	5	4	4.25

Source(s): Table by authors