A conceptual framework of employees’ perceived organisational support on student loyalty

Abstract

Purpose

This article examines the direct influence of employee’s perceived organisational support (POS) on student loyalty (LOY), exploring the indirect roles of total quality management (TQM) and information communication technology adoption (ADT) and moderating roles of government support (GOS) and co-worker support (COS).

Design/methodology/approach

The article constructs a research model along with postulations by combining both empirical and theoretical literature in multidisciplinary fields.

Findings

This paper proposes that POS will be positively related to LOY, and this positive relationship will be positively mediated by TQM and ADT jointly and independently. Additionally, GOS and COS will positively moderate between POS and LOY.

Research limitations/implications

This article offers suggestions for both academics and specialists in higher educational institutions for achieving LOY by applying POS, TQM and ADT as strategic tools. It also highpoints the crucial role of GOS and support from co-workers in achieving LOY. This paper lays the foundation for upcoming scholars to test this research model, empirically, in different higher educational institutions contexts worldwide.

Practical implications

By valuing contributions, caring about well-being and fulfilling the socio-emotional needs of employees, higher educational institutions stand the chance of achieving LOY via TQM and ADT. Additionally, POS can foster LOY under massive GOS and COS.

Originality/value

The article provides unique understandings into how TQM and ADT connect POS to LOY and how POS relates to LOY under varied levels of GOS and COS. It also highlights the theoretical contributions of the underpinning theories.

Citation

Koomson, S. (2022), "A conceptual framework of employees’ perceived organisational support on student loyalty", IIM Ranchi Journal of Management Studies, Vol. 1 No. 2, pp. 209-221. https://doi.org/10.1108/IRJMS-01-2022-0003

1. Introduction

All over the world, teaching or working has progressively turned into an online activity, and this change in workspace has changed the work methods and processes for employees among higher educational institutions such that some employees work from home while others have adopted a rotation system where they receive minimum supervision at work (Turkmenoğlu et al., 2020). Will these employees, who work from home or adopt a rotation system where they receive minimum supervision at work, still contribute to organisational goals? As rational beings, employees will still contribute to organisational goals only when they are convinced that, over the past years, the organisation/employer has valued their contributions and has shown concern about their welfare and emotional desires. This assertion is explained by the popular phrase “one good turn, deserves another” or “you scratch my back, I scratch yours” (Gouldner, 1960).

In effect, if the organisation, over the past years, has failed in valuing the contributions, caring about the well-being and fulfilling socio-emotional needs of employees, employees will be reluctant to overperform for the employer (Blau, 1964). The extent to which workers believe that their employer appreciates their efforts, show concern about their welfare and meet emotional and social desires of the worker is called perceived organisational support (POS) (Eisenberger et al., 1986). POS is generally thought to be the organisation’s contribution to a positive reciprocity dynamic with employees as employees tends to perform better to reciprocate received rewards and favourable treatment (Shrand and Ronnie, 2021). An employee who believes that the employer appreciates his/her efforts, shows concern about their welfare and meets emotional and social desires has the tendency of indulging in activities that benefit the employer, and this proclamation finds backing in the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964). The social exchange theory postulates that kind gestures are provided with the mindset that future gains will be received (Cropanzano et al., 2017).

When an employee, who works in a higher educational institution, perceives that the employer has his/her best interest at heart, he/she becomes happy and undertakes activities that enhance student loyalty (LOY) for the benefit of the higher educational institution. This assertion is explained by the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), which assumes that if the employer helps the employee out, the employee is likely to do something in return for the employer. This suggests a likely positive effect of POS on student LOY. It is often said that cutting-edge revolutions in firms emanates from happy workers (Koomson, 2021). Thus, POS can be a foundation towards achieving the objectives of higher educational institutions in the form of improving student LOY.

An argument is put forward that the paybacks of POS on student LOY can be facilitated by adopting an innovative approach to management, which will improve the work methods and processes in the educational setting, referred to as total quality management (TQM). Adopting and executing this innovative continuous improvement strategy will improve work methods and processes in the educational institution to foster student LOY. This argument is grounded in the affective events theory (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996). The affective events theory advocates that happenings at the work settings often elicit emotional responses among workers. These emotional responses subsequently influence workers' attitudes and behaviours. Thus, a positive happening at the work setting activates the mental appraisals of one’s work such that the encounter of positive happenings will offer a more favourable perception of the work and, subsequently, increase the drive to commit energy into the work (Thoresen et al., Chermont, 2003).

Consistent with the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), this study puts forward that a worker who believes that the organisation cares about his/her well-being and fulfils socio-emotional needs would be more likely to show positive emotional events at the workplace, such as feeling of joy and happiness. These positive emotional events would increase his/her willingness to partake in implementing a TQM (continuous process improvement) strategy to eventually improve student LOY. This argument is supported by empirical evidence from the study by Wickramasinghe and Perera (2014), where the authors reveal a positive and significant relationship between POS and quality performance, suggesting that employees who perceive that their organisation have their best interest are heart strive to improve quality for the benefit of the employer.

In support of the proposed positive relationship between TQM and student LOY, Abdallah and Mohamed (2018) uncover a strong positive correlation between healthcare providers’ awareness of TQM and patient satisfaction. Abadi et al. (2018) show that TQM positively contributes to patient satisfaction. Nguyen and Nagase (2020) find that TQM is positively related to patient satisfaction. Zaid et al. (2020) also disclose that TQM positively and significantly affects patient satisfaction.

The affective events theory (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996) is useful in elucidating the mediating influence of information communication technology adoption (ADT) in the connection between POS and student LOY. Based on the affective events theory, this paper contends that an employee who believes that the organisation cares about his/her well-being and fulfils socio-emotional needs would be more likely to show positive emotional events at work, and these positive emotional events would increase his/her willingness to adopt information communication technology, for instance, lecturers’ willingness to use ZOOM platforms for teaching and holding thesis supervision meetings with students. This practice will help to foster student LOY for the advantage of the higher educational institution.

This study also employs the general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) to argue for a potential moderating role of government support (GOS), a finance tool, on the direct tie between POS and student LOY such that the direct positive tie between POS and student LOY is strengthened under massive GOS, but weakened under little GOS to higher educational institutions. GOS is defined as financial support offered by provincial, federal or municipal states, including but not limited to working and capital grants, repayable or pardonable loans, subventions, loan assurances and reimbursable tax credits (Lee et al., 2022). The general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) assumes that an organisation’s ability to satisfy its customers (students) depends on the interplay between how the organisation is concerned about the welfare and emotional needs of employees (POS) and the support it receives from government (GOS) (Miller, 1981).

The general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) is also useful in clarifying the possible moderating role of support from co-workers, a motivational tool, on the direct tie between POS and student LOY such that the direct favourable tie between POS and student LOY is reinforced under a working environment where an employee receives massive support and encouragement from his/her colleagues, but weakened under little co-worker support (COS). The general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) assumes that an organisation’s ability to satisfy its customers is contingent on the interaction between how it is concerned about the welfare and emotional desires of employees (POS), and the support and encouragements an employee receives from his/her colleagues at the workplace (COS) (Miller, 1981).

However, literature addressing the tie between POS and student LOY is in dearth. Close existing research studies have concentrated on the impact of POS on other variables, such as employee innovative behaviour (Qi et al., 2019), turnover motives (Liu et al., 2018; Albalawi et al., 2019), job satisfaction (Appelbaum et al., 2019; Bernarto et al., 2020) and life satisfaction (Bernarto et al., 2020), overlooking student LOY. Besides, there is scant literature addressing the indirect influence of TQM between POS and student LOY. Existing studies in the area used TQM as a mediator variable on dissimilar direct paths (Prajogo and Sohal, 2006; Mehralian et al., 2016; Imran et al., 2018; Kustono, 2020).

Moreover, literature addressing the indirect influence of information communication technology ADT between POS and student LOY is limited. Existing studies have used information communication technology ADT as a mediator variable on different direct paths (Nadeem et al., 2018; Imran et al., 2019; Khaddam et al., 2020; MahbubulHye et al., 2020; Dutot et al., 2021). Also, literature addressing the conditional influence of GOS and support from co-worker on the connection between POS and student LOY is hard to find. The close studies found utilised GOS as a moderator variable on different direct paths (Kim et al., 2018; Saberi and Hamdan, 2019; Ishtiaq et al., 2020; Anwar et al., 2020; Xia et al., 2020; Seow et al., 2021).

In addition, literature addressing the conditional effect of support from co-workers on the tie between POS and student LOY is sparse. The close studies found used support from co-workers as a boundary condition on different direct relationships, such as the relationship between task conflict and job satisfaction (Martínez-Corts et al., 2011), the relationship between fear of terror and increased insomnia and between increased insomnia and increased burnout (Toker et al., 2015), the relationship between workplace design satisfaction and visual and musculoskeletal discomfort (Robertson et al., 2016), the relationship between compensation, training and development, manager support and employee commitment (Ahmad et al., 2019), and the relationship between psychological empowerment and innovative work behaviour (Rehman et al., 2019). To address these gaps in the body of knowledge, this article examines the connection between POS and student LOY, exploring the indirect effect of TQM and information communication technology ADT and conditional effect of GOS and support from co-workers.

2. Research questions

The purpose of this article is to address six research questions:

RQ1.

How does employee POS improve student LOY?

RQ2.

How does employee POS affect TQM to achieve student LOY?

RQ3.

How does employee POS affect information communication technology ADT to achieve student LOY?

RQ4.

How does employee POS affect TQM and information communication technology ADT, jointly, to achieve student LOY?

RQ5.

What is the moderating effect of GOS between POS and student LOY?

RQ6.

What is the conditional influence of support from co-workers between POS and student LOY?

To address the research questions stated above, this article uses conceptual, theoretical and empirical issues to examine how POS improves student LOY, how POS affects TQM to achieve student LOY, how POS affects information communication technology ADT to achieve student LOY, how POS affects TQM and information communication technology ADT, jointly, to achieve student LOY, and the conditional effects of support from government and support from co-workers between POS and student LOY.

3. Theoretical development

3.1 Perceived organisational support and student loyalty

POS represents the extent to which workers are hopeful that their employer cherishes their efforts, has their welfare at heart and meets emotional and social desires (Eisenberger et al., 1986). POS is generally thought to be the organisation’s contribution to a positive reciprocity dynamic with employees as employees tends to perform better to reciprocate received rewards and favourable treatment. There appears to be a possible positive connection between POS and student LOY, and this positive relationship is backed by the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), which assumes that kind gestures are shown with the expectation that future rewards will be received (Cropanzano et al., 2017). When an employee is convinced that the employer cherishes his/her effort and is concerned about his/her welfare, the employee has a high tendency of partaking in activities that benefit the organisation.

The possible positive connection between employee POS and student LOY is backed by the findings of closely related studies. For instance, Liu et al. (2018) show that POS combats employees’ turnover intents. Albalawi et al. (2019) find that POS reduces employees’ turnover intentions. Appelbaum et al. (2019) uncover that POS boosts employees’ job satisfaction. Qi et al. (2019) show that POS encourages employee innovation work behaviour. Bernarto et al. (2020) also disclose that POS enhances employees’ job satisfaction and life satisfaction. Consequently, POS can be a cornerstone towards achieving the objectives of higher educational institutions in the form of student LOY.

Student LOY is termed as a student’s favourable actions to the higher educational institution through via favourable verbal remarks by commending the higher educational institution to colleagues, friends, relatives and co-workers (Sim, 2011). Improving student LOY is central to the existence of every higher educational institution (Sugiharto et al., 2022). Student LOY has both long- and short-term effects on higher educational institutions. A student population that demonstrates high student LOY is a resource that can put the higher educational institution into a competitive position in the education industry (Alsmadi et al., 2022). A loyal student is likely to remain, repeat and recommend the school to his/her friends and family. He/she is less likely to drop out or transfer to another school (Wilczewski et al., 2022). Thanks to student LOY, an increasing number of students are going back to their former higher educational institutions to update their knowledge, such as pursuing additional degrees like MBA, MPhil and PhD. From the foregoing, this paper proposes that POS has a direct positive connection with student LOY.

P1.

POS is favourably connected to student LOY.

3.2 Mediating roles of total quality management and information communication technology adoption between perceived organisational support and student loyalty

This paper argues that the direct favourable connection between POS and student LOY is mediated by TQM, and this argument is elucidated by the affective events theory (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996). This theory upholds that an employee who believes that the organisation cares about his/her well-being and fulfils socio-emotional needs would be more likely to show positive emotional events at the workplace, such as feeling of joy and happiness. These positive emotional events would increase his/her desire to partake in implementing a TQM strategy of that organisation to eventually achieve or improve student LOY. Adopting and executing this innovative and creative approach to management will improve work methods and processes in the higher educational institution to foster student LOY.

This argument is supported by the findings of related authorities. For example, Prajogo and Sohal (2006) reveal that TQM partially mediates between differentiation strategy and three performance measures, namely product innovation, product quality and process innovation. Mehralian et al. (2016) find that TQM connects the tie between social responsibility and organisational performance. Imran et al. (2018) show that TQM mediates between entrepreneurial orientation and small and medium-sized enterprises (SME) export performance. Kustono (2020) also finds that TQM acts as a mediator between situational leadership and organisational culture on performance.

The affective events theory (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996) is also beneficial in clarifying the mediating role of information communication technology ADT on the tie between POS and student LOY. In line with the affective events theory (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996), an employee who is convinced that the organisation cares about his/her well-being and fulfils socio-emotional needs would be more likely to show positive emotional events at the workplace, such as feeling of joy and happiness. These positive emotional events would increase his/her willingness to adopt information communication technology to foster organisational outcomes, manifested by student LOY for the well-being of the higher educational institution.

This argument is also backed by the results of related authorities. To exemplify, Nadeem et al. (2018) show that information communication technology links the connection between staff service quality and e-payment on e-logistics performance. Imran et al. (2019) disclose that information technology links the connection between effective payment method and e-logistics customer satisfaction. Khaddam et al. (2020) discover that information technology mediates between supply chain management and competitive advantage. MahbubulHye et al. (2020) show that information communication technology mediates among staff service quality, website design and e-traceability system on firms’ e-logistic performance. Dutot et al. (2021) also find that information technologies (information technology governance and strategy) link the positive connection between family harmony and firm performance.

To guarantee successful implementation of student LOY strategies, POS, TQM and information communication technology ADT are all required in every process of the higher educational institutions’ business model. Without these three activities, the quest to achieve and continuously improve student LOY will be difficult to accomplish. Consequently, this paper expects TQM and information communication technology ADT to positively mediate between POS and student LOY.

P2.

TQM will positively mediate the relationship between POS and student LOY.

P3.

Information communication technology ADT will positively mediate the connection between POS and student LOY.

P4.

TQM and information communication technology ADT will jointly and positively mediate between POS and student LOY.

3.3 Moderating roles of government support and support from co-workers between perceived organisational support and student loyalty

This study employs the general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) to argue for a potential conditional effect of GOS on the direct connection between POS and student LOY in such a way that the direct favourable connection between POS and student LOY is strengthened under massive GOS, but weakened under little GOS to higher educational institutions. The general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) assumes that a higher educational institutions’ ability to achieve student LOY depends on the interplay between the support it gives to employees by having their welfare at heart and meeting emotional and social desires (POS) and the support it receives from government (GOS) (Miller, 1981).

The argument for the potential moderating role of GOS between POS and LOY is backed by the results of related authorities. To illustrate, Kim et al. (2018) report that GOS significantly enhances the effects of perceived value on adoption intention. Saberi and Hamdan (2019) find that support from government moderates the connection between entrepreneurship and economic growth. Ishtiaq et al. (2020) disclose that support from government moderates the connection between financial literacy resource acquisition and financial performance. Anwar et al. (2020) uncover that support from government reinforces the connection between entrepreneurial finance and new venture success. Xia et al. (2020) find that GOS intensity plays a conditional effect between basic research intensity and innovation performance. Seow et al. (2021) also uncover that GOS moderates between innovative practice and business performance.

The general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) is also useful in illuminating the possible conditional influence of support from co-workers on the direct connection between POS and student LOY in such a way that the direct positive tie between POS and student LOY is reinforced under a working environment where an employee receives massive support and encouragement from his/her colleagues, but weakened under little COS. The general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) assumes that a higher educational institutions’ ability to achieve student LOY depends on the interaction between the support it gives to employees by having their welfare at heart and meeting emotional and social desires (POS) and the support and encouragements an employee receives from his/her colleagues at the workplace (COS) (Miller, 1981).

This argument is backed by the findings of closely related studies. For instance, Martínez-Corts et al. (2011) find that support from co-worker pays a conditional effect on the connection between task conflict and job satisfaction. Toker et al. (2015) disclose that COS moderates the relationship between fear of terror and increased insomnia and between increased insomnia and increased burnout. Robertson et al. (2016) show that COS moderates between workplace design satisfaction and visual and musculoskeletal discomfort. Ahmad et al. (2019) show that support from co-workers plays a conditional effect among compensation, training and development, manager support and employee commitment. Rehman et al. (2019) also show that support from co-workers plays a conditional role in the connection between psychological empowerment and innovative work behaviour.

Deriving from these views above, this paper postulates that support from government and co-workers will offer favourable boundary conditions in the POS–student LOY relationship. Therefore, to become more efficient and effective in achieving and continuously improving student LOY, higher educational institutions should be able to create a fit between POS strategies and contextual factors (Dranzin and Van de ven, 1985), like GOS and COS. Thus, this paper postulates that GOS and COS will positively moderate the POS–student LOY relationship.

P5.

GOS will positively moderate the relationship between POS and student LOY.

P6.

COS will positively moderate the connection between POS and student LOY.

4. Conceptual framework

The conceptual framework originating from the discussion above is demonstrated in Figure 1. The postulations are symbolised as P1, P2, P3, P4, P5 and P6. The postulations illuminating the positive impact of POS on student LOY (P1), the positive indirect effects of TQM (P2), information communication technology ADT (P3) and TQM plus information communication technology ADT (P4) between POS and student LOY are symbolised by solid lines; while the dotted lines symbolise the positive moderating effect of GOS (P5) and support from co-workers (P6) on the positive direct connection between POS on student LOY.

Here, (P1) explains how POS improves student LOY. Likewise, (P2) explains how POS affects TQM to achieve student LOY. Similarly, (P3) explains how POS affects information communication technology ADT to achieve student LOY. In similar fashion, (P4) explains how POS affects TQM and information communication technology, jointly, to achieve student LOY. The remaining postulations explicate the contextual factors (GOS and COS) under which the POS–student LOY relationship can either be reinforced or weakened.

5. Discussion

This article offers insights in various ways. In the first place, it blends and lengthens the body of knowledge on five distinct fields of study: (1) POS, (2) TQM, (3) information communication technology ADT, (4) GOS and (5) co-workers support; the first being an employer–employee relations tool, the second being a strategic management tool, the third being an information communication technology tool, the fourth being a finance tool and the fifth being a motivational tool. Thus, this present study surpasses a single discipline, making interdisciplinary. Second, as per my reading, this is the only study that addresses the indirect effects of TQM and information communication technology ADT on the direct connection between POS and student LOY, dwelling on the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) and affective events theory (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996) as theoretical underpinnings. Third, as much as I am aware, this study is unique because it illustrates the contextual factors (GOS and COS) under which the POS–student LOY relationship can be enhanced, with theoretical support from social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) and general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977).

6. Implications to research

Upcoming scholars may test this research model and postulations, empirically, in varied higher educational contexts worldwide. Specifically, they may empirically test how POS affects student LOY since there is a dearth of literature in this area. Furthermore, they could examine how TQM and information communication technology ADT independently and jointly mediate between POS and student LOY since earlier researchers have found empirical support for the mediating roles of these two variables, but on dissimilar direct paths [TQM (Prajogo and Sohal, 2006; Mehralian et al., 2016; Imran et al., 2018; Kustono, 2020) and information communication technology ADT (Nadeem et al., 2018; Imran et al., 2019; Khaddam et al., 2020; MahbubulHye et al., 2020; Dutot et al., 2021)].

The dissimilar direct paths for the mediating role of TQM includes, but not limited to the relationship between differentiation strategy and three performance measures, namely product innovation, product quality and process innovation (Prajogo and Sohal, 2006), the relationship between social responsibility and organisational performance (Mehralian et al., 2016), the relationship between entrepreneurial orientation and SME export performance (Imran et al., 2018) and the relationship between situational leadership and organisational culture on performance (Kustono, 2020).

The dissimilar direct relationships for the mediating role of information communication technology ADT includes, but not limited to the relationship between staff service quality and e-payment on e-logistic performance (Nadeem et al., 2018), the relationship between effective payment method and e-logistic customer satisfaction (Imran et al., 2019), the relationship between supply chain management and competitive advantage (Khaddam et al., 2020), the relationship among staff service quality, website design and e-traceability system on firms’ e-logistic performance (MahbubulHye et al., 2020), and the relationship between family harmony and firm performance (Dutot et al. (2021).

Additionally, future researchers may empirically test the contextual factors (GOS and COS) under which the POS–student LOY relationship can either be strengthened or weakened, following the findings of closely-related existing studies [GOS (Kim et al., 2018; Saberi and Hamdan, 2019; Ishtiaq et al., 2020; Anwar et al., 2020; Xia et al., 2020; Seow et al., 2021) and COS (Martínez-Corts et al., 2011; Toker et al., 2015; Robertson et al., 2016; Ahmad et al., 2019; Rehman et al., 2019)].

7. Implications to practice

To practice, first of all, this paper underscores the need for managers/employers of higher educational institutions to value the contributions of their employees, fulfil socio-emotional needs and care about the well-being of employees. Doing so could propel employees to undertake activities that would improve student LOY for the benefit of the higher educational institution. Second, this study highlights the essence for managers/employers in higher educational institutions to embrace and ensure continuous process improvement in the day-to-day operations of employees. Doing so will facilitate the attainment of student LOY for the advantage of the higher educational institution. Third, this study emphasises the need for managers/employers in higher educational institutions to encourage ICT adoption among employees to aid in providing timely and efficient services to students to eventually improve student LOY for the advantage of the higher educational institution.

Fourth, this study underlines the essence for managers/employers in higher educational institutions to encourage both continuous process improvement and ICT adoption among employees to aid in providing timely and efficient services to students to eventually improve student LOY for the benefit of the higher educational institution. Fifth, this study serves as a reminder to governments/states worldwide on their role of providing financial support to higher education institutions. Finally, this study underlines the relevance of employees to help each other at work. Helping behaviours among co-workers is one sure way to improving student LOY in higher educational institutions.

8. Implications to theory

To begin, this article lengthens the social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) by providing understanding on the influence of employee POS on student LOY in higher educational institutions. Second, this paper extends the affective events theory (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996) by offering insight into the indirect effect of TQM in the connection between employee POS and student LOY in higher educational institutions. Third, this study advances the affective events theory (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996) by providing understanding on the indirect effect of ICT adoption in the connection between employee POS and student LOY in higher educational institutions.

Fourth, this study expands the affective events theory (Weiss and Cropanzano, 1996) by offering insight into the indirect effect of TQM and ICT adoption, jointly, in the tie between POS and student LOY in higher educational institutions. Fifth, this study lengthens the general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) by providing understanding on the conditional effect of support from government on the connection between POS and student LOY. Finally, this study advances the general contingency theory (Luthans and Stewart, 1977) by offering insight into the conditional role of support from co-workers on the connection between employee POS and student LOY in higher educational institutions.

9. Conclusions

This paper made the attempt to explore the direct connection between POS and student LOY. Again, it addresses the influence of POS on TQM and its subsequent influence on student LOY. Furthermore, it explores the influence of POS on information communication technology ADT and its resulting effect on student LOY. Also, it addresses the effect of POS on both TQM and information communication technology ADT and their subsequent impact on student LOY. It further explores the contextual factors (GOS and COS) under which the POS–student LOY relationship can either be enhanced or weakened, by offering a research model with testable postulations.

This article underscores the role of POS as an employer–employee relations tool, TQM as a strategic management tool, information communication technology ADT as an information communication and technology tool, GOS as a finance tool and COS as a motivational tool for achieving student LOY in higher educational institutions. Coupled with implications for both managers and scientists, this article also recommended suggestions for further studies to nourish the fields.

Figures

Figure 1

Conceptual model