How will individual streaming platforms disrupt the entertainment and retail industries? Insights from Mukbang phenomenon

Abstract

Purpose

Mukbang is a live-streaming format where hosts, often referred to as broadcast jockeys (BJs) or streamers, eat copious amounts of food while engaging with their audience through commentary and reactions. This unique cultural phenomenon has sparked curiosity and diverse reactions globally. Mukbang’s popularity highlights the transformative power of digital platforms on traditional media and society, facilitating a shift toward more interactive and participatory forms of media consumption. This conceptual paper explores Mukbang’s widespread allure through frameworks such as the long tail theory, which illuminates the success of niche markets; parasocial relationship theory, which sheds light on viewers' bonds with streamers and social identity theory, which explains audience loyalty. We also forecast the implications of these streaming trends on the television, retail and sports industries, predicting a broad impact on traditional consumption and engagement models.

Design/methodology/approach

This study employs various theories, including the long tail concept, parasocial interactions and social identity theory, to describe and analyze the perplexing yet significant phenomenon of Mukbang.

Findings

Digital technology has transformed business models across various media industries, similar to how iTunes and the MP3 format revolutionized traditional music labels. This study suggests that streaming platforms, with their ability to cater to diverse needs and facilitate two-way communication, have the potential to disrupt traditional entertainment and retail industries.

Originality/value

This study addresses the gap in understanding how and why streaming platforms like AfreecaTV, Twitch and Huya can disrupt the traditional TV and entertainment industries. It highlights key elements that enable users to become prosumers, broadcasting content such as Mukbang. These platforms outperform traditional entertainment with numerous channels, ease of access, live chat sessions and digital rewards. The ability to build intimate relationships with viewers through two-way communication strengthens parasocial relationships, fostering emotional connections with streamers. Additionally, live chats with other viewers create a sense of belonging and social identity, helping viewers reduce uncertainty and enhance self-esteem.

Citation

Chae, H.-C. (2024), "How will individual streaming platforms disrupt the entertainment and retail industries? Insights from Mukbang phenomenon", Digital Transformation and Society, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/DTS-07-2024-0117

Introduction

Eating broadcast, which is translated to and is more popularly known as “Muk-bang” (Mukbang) in Korean, is a unique cultural phenomenon that has sparked curiosity and varying reactions globally. Mukbang is a live-streaming format where hosts, often referred to as broadcast jockeys (BJs) or streamers, eat copious amounts of food while engaging with their audience, offering commentary and reactions (Pereira, Sung, & Lee, 2019). While some find the spectacle of watching BJs eat and subsequently donating money to them baffling, it has become a lucrative business, with BJs earning through donations, ads, sponsorships, and endorsements (Helane, 2023; Joo, 2015; Indita, 2022). The trend has expanded beyond South Korea, with creators worldwide diving into the Mukbang phenomenon (Jackson, 2021). Mukbang is a fascinating case study of how a specific content format can rise to prominence and influence global content consumption trends (Gehlen, Jacqueline, Lopez, & Pereira, 2023). Mukbang’s popularity highlights the transformative power that digital platforms exert on traditional media and society, facilitating a cultural shift towards more interactive and participatory forms of media consumption. This transition from traditional, passive viewership to active engagement is reshaping industries and business models, underscoring the importance of adaptation in legacy media to stay relevant in the rapidly evolving digital landscape.

This unique Mukbang trend draws attention from many researchers in various disciplines (Kircaburun, Harris, Calado, & Griffiths, 2021; Wijnsouw, 2020). They have investigated it from numerous perspectives such as the socio-cultural reasons for Mukbang’s popularity including increasing single-person households and changing mealtime practices (Hong & Park, 2018), how Mukbang fits into the broader landscape of online streaming and its associated community-building practices (Aucoin, 2019; Brown & Moberly, 2020), the psychological attraction to Mukbang, like parasocial interactions (Anjani, Mok, Tang, Oehlberg, & Goh, 2020; Sanskriti, Guglani, Joshi, Anjankar, & Joshi, 2023; Song, Kim, & Hwang, 2023; Stein & Yeo, 2021), the sociological implications, such as the format’s role in mitigating feelings of loneliness or its influence on eating habits (Kircaburun et al., 2021; Sanskriti et al., 2023), BJs’ potential influence on viewers' purchasing decisions (Lee & Wan, 2023; Song, 2023), and the health impacts of Mukbang on both viewers and performers related to overeating, eating disorders, and promotion of unhealthy eating habits (Sanskriti et al., 2023; von Ash, Huynh, Deng, & White, 2023). Mukbang literature spans multiple disciplines, reflecting the phenomenon’s multifaceted impact on culture, media, psychology, sociology, and economics. Despite the extensive body of research covering these areas, existing literature often examines Mukbang through specific disciplinary lenses, overlooking the interconnectedness of its cultural, psychological, and economic facets (Kircaburun et al., 2021; Sanskriti et al., 2023). Our research aims to bridge this gap by applying multiple theoretical frameworks to dissect the appeal of Mukbang, offering insights into the complex dynamics of digital culture and the disruptive impact of streaming platforms.

Our objectives for this conceptual paper are twofold. First, we seek to understand the appeal of Mukbang by analyzing it through the multiple theoretical frameworks of the long tail concept in consumer preference diversity, parasocial relationships that viewers form with on-screen personalities, and social identity theory that explains how people align with certain groups based on shared interests and activities. These frameworks can elucidate the personal connection viewers develop with BJs and how this affects viewer behavior and industry trends. Second, we intend to extrapolate our findings to predict the potential disruptive effects of similar streaming content on traditional media consumption and production models.

In sum, this paper aims to shed light on the innovative power of individual streaming platforms, using Mukbang as a case study to project wider industry implications and the necessary adaptive strategies for legacy companies. This kind of research contributes to the field by offering new angles, clarifying concepts, and laying the groundwork for future empirical studies. In the subsequent section, we explain Mukbang, delve deeper into its syndrome, and scrutinize the intricacies of this cultural trend through the prisms of the long tail, parasocial interaction, and social identity theories.

Literature review

What is Mukbang?

Mukbang, coined from the Korean words for “eating” (muk-ja) and “broadcast” (bang-song), is a distinctive live-streaming phenomenon where hosts, known as broadcast jockeys (BJs), eat substantial amounts of food while interacting with viewers, fostering a sense of companionship among those who dine alone (Helane, 2023). Mukbang entwines South Korea’s cultural fabric with the innovative spirit of its BJs, creating a unique viewing experience that resonates on a personal and emotional level with audiences. The story behind Mukbang is intertwined with the rise of digital culture and the shift in social dining habits. As more individuals in South Korea and across the globe found themselves eating alone, Mukbang filled a social void, simulating the atmosphere of dining out with friends or family. This format became particularly popular among those seeking friendship during meals or enjoying the vicarious pleasure of watching others indulge in a variety of dishes (Cha, 2014; Kircaburun et al., 2021; Song, 2023).

Unlike similar broadcast shows such as cook-alongs, food reviews, and competitive eating, Mukbang is unique in its format, combining the act of eating with real-time audience interaction. Interactivity is a cornerstone of Mukbang, with BJs engaging in live chat to form a bond with their audience. For instance, as shown in Figure 1, BJ Rao demonstrates Mukbang while engaging with viewers in real-time. This dynamic communication helps viewers form a more intimate connection with the BJs, even as they partake in the simple act of eating (Aucoin, 2019). The entertainment and emotional support the BJs provide culminate in viewers expressing their appreciation through digital cash, known as “Star Balloons”, which can translate into significant earnings for the BJs (Aucoin, 2019). These exchanges underscore the powerful relationship that can develop between viewers and online personalities, rooted in shared experiences and interactions.

Mukbang represents a segment within the broader online streaming culture that contrasts with traditional media consumption. While the film and TV industries produce content with high production values intended for one-way consumption, Mukbang—and online streaming in general—emphasizes interactivity and community, traits that are more intrinsic to the digital era’s social dynamics (Aucoin, 2019). These contrasts are key to understanding the shifting landscapes of media production and consumption, where interactive, community-driven content like Mukbang challenges traditional entertainment models.

While Mukbang started in South Korea in 2008, it has since garnered international popularity, becoming a global trend (Styawan & Buwana, 2023). It has transcended its origins on AfreecaTV, a platform that provided the initial space for these unique broadcasts, to become a content category on global platforms like Twitch, YouTube, and TikTok (Helane, 2023). These platforms have broadened the reach of Mukbang, allowing creators worldwide to share their own eating broadcasts with diverse, global audiences. As a result, Mukbang hosts can be found streaming from various countries, each adding their own local flavor to the trend.

In sum, Mukbang reflects a cultural shift towards interactive media and the growing appeal of immersive, community-centric viewing experiences, challenging traditional entertainment norms and underscoring the importance of interactivity in contemporary digital culture.

Enabling platform and technologies

AfreecaTV, with its accessible broadcasting technology and innovative content creators, has been instrumental in the rise of the Mukbang phenomenon. AfreecaTV, which stands for “Anyone Can Freely Broadcast TV,” offers both a website and a mobile app that democratize content creation, allowing individuals to host their own channels using a simple video camera or smartphone setup. Since its launch in South Korea in 2005, the platform has achieved international reach, featuring a diverse array of content that includes live video game streams, real-time taxi driver broadcasts, artist performances, and, notably, Mukbang. AfreecaTV supports an engaging user experience through important features like live broadcasting, interactive chat, and community discussion boards. The platform boasts a vast network with over 15,000 channels and more than 6,000 BJs actively creating content each day (AfreecaTV, 2022). Remarkably, a significant segment of its user base comprises young adults in their teens and twenties, a highly coveted age group for advertisers and major consumers of digital content (AfreecaTV, 2022). South Korea’s advanced digital infrastructure, featuring ubiquitous connectivity, underpins the seamless, mobile-centric streaming experience on AfreecaTV, making it a staple for commuters (Cha, 2014).

Although platforms like YouTube, Instagram, and TikTok offer varied content and interactions, AfreecaTV distinguishes itself with focused interaction in niche areas like Mukbang, resonating with specific cultural practices. Mukbang streams on AfreecaTV share similarities with content on Twitch, where streamers engage with viewers in real-time, creating a community around specific interests, whether it’s gaming, cooking, or eating. What sets Mukbang apart is its focus on the eating experience and its cultural nuances, whereas Twitch is more diverse in content and originated with a focus on gaming.

How can we explain the Mukbang phenomenon?

To unravel the appeal of Mukbang and similar content, we may turn to the “long tail” concept, which illuminates the diversity in consumer preferences, parasocial relationships that develop between viewers and on-screen hosts, and social identity theory that elucidates the propensity of individuals to affiliate with groups that reflect their interests and activities. These theoretical frameworks collectively deepen our comprehension of the complex connections viewers form with Mukbang content and its cultural resonance.

Long tail theory

The Mukbang phenomenon is an apt illustration of the long tail theory in action. This concept, championed by Chris Anderson in 2006, posits that our digital economy is increasingly shifting from a focus on a small number of mainstream hits at the head of the demand curve to a “long tail” of niche interests. Because physical retailers have limited shelf space and cannot afford to stock products that do not sell quickly, they concentrate their merchandising mix on high-volume items. Online stores, on the other hand, can stock and sell hundreds of thousands of products to anyone, anywhere. Thus, online stores can sell products that are in low demand or have a low sales volume, which collectively make up a market share that rivals or exceeds the relatively few current bestsellers and blockbusters that brick-and-mortar stores focus on. IT and the Internet, in particular, enable consumers to greatly reduce their search costs and substantially increase the collective share of hard-to-find products, thereby creating a longer tail in the distribution of sales (Brynjolfsson, Hu, & Simester, 2011).

The long tail theory posits that our increasingly digital marketplace enables niche products and interests to achieve viability and success, thereby expanding cultural diversity and contributing to cultural globalization (Schlütz & Hedder, 2022). This theory significantly impacts consumer choice by facilitating the success of products once considered too specialized for mainstream markets. For instance, in the music industry, platforms like Spotify and iTunes have transformed the landscape, allowing even the most niche genres to secure a global audience. The long tail effect, thus, nurtures a rich and varied cultural ecosystem online, where diverse interests can flourish. K-pop is an excellent example, where what was once a South Korean musical genre now enjoys a fan base across the globe due to online platforms.

Similarly, streaming services like Netflix and Hulu embody the long tail concept, providing an expansive array of content beyond what traditional theaters or TV schedules could accommodate. This spectrum includes niche offerings like foreign films, documentaries, indie productions, and series tailored to particular interests or subcultures. Digital platforms broaden content availability even further, catering to unique interests with unprecedented scope. AfreecaTV, for example, with its extensive catalog of 15,000 channels, has been at the forefront of innovative formats like Mukbang, which traditional media would typically bypass due to their specialized appeal. These platforms are not just alternatives to conventional TV; they represent a new paradigm in content consumption, meeting the diverse demands of a global audience (Dredge, 2015). The long tail theory thus underscores cultural democratization, allowing global access to a wider variety of cultural products.

Parasocial relationship and digital intimacy

The popularity of Mukbang can be partly attributed to the concept of parasocial relationships, which describe the sense of connection audiences feel with media figures. Initially posited by Horton and Wohl in 1956, this theory likens audience-media figure interactions to friendships, where viewers, despite physical distance, experience a closeness akin to that with real-life friends (Horton & Richard Wohl, 1956; Perse & Rubin, 1989). Parasocial relationships are psychological bonds that viewers develop as their perceived intimacy with the media persona mirrors that of face-to-face interactions (Tukachinsky & Stever, 2019). Parasocial relationships are like interpersonal friendships in that they are voluntary and provide companionship, and social attractiveness plays an essential role in relationship establishment (McLaughlin & Wohn, 2021). They evolve as viewers find commonalities with the media figure, thereby reducing uncertainty and fostering a sense of familiarity (Eyal & Rubin, 2003).

While traditionally one-sided, parasocial interactions have changed with media advancements. Reality TV audiences, for instance, build quasi-friendships with characters, enhancing their attachment and viewing motivation—often more so than the content itself (Dyer, 2010; Conway & Rubin, 1991). Such relationships also correlate with satisfaction in contexts like television shopping, where they can heighten enjoyment and reinforce commitment to shared social norms (Lim & Kim, 2011; Hartmann & Goldhoorn, 2011).

As social media platforms have become pervasive, they have reshaped parasocial relationships by allowing for direct interactions between celebrities and fans, albeit still predominantly one-sided. Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram allow celebrities to interact with and respond to their fans, giving the impression that they are in direct communication (Chappuis, 2014). Although social media has the potential for two-way communication and a more balanced relationship between media personalities and media users, research has shown that interactions are mostly one-way (Stever & Lawson, 2013). Social media platforms give fans more access to the personal life of the media personality, but the personality still controls reciprocation in the relationship (Stever & Lawson, 2013).

Live-streaming platforms have taken one-sided parasocial relationships to the next level (Wulf, Schneider, & Queck, 2021). Live streaming allows viewers to notice BJs’ emotions and body language closely, fostering a sense of intimacy and accessibility to their lives (McLaughlin & Wohn, 2021; Wulf et al., 2021). Such regular interaction can elevate BJs to celebrity status, instilling them with perceived authenticity (Jerslev, 2016) and leading viewers to feel a personal acquaintance with them (Song, 2018; Stein & Yeo, 2021). Consequently, viewers often come to see BJs as trusted advisors, turning to them for guidance (Ko & Chen, 2020; Liao, Chen, Qi, Li, & Yu, 2023; Rubin, Perse, & Powell, 1985).

The economic model of live-streaming further incentivizes BJs to nurture these relationships, as they often rely on audience donations for their income. Engaging directly with viewers, BJs enhance their appeal and encourage continued viewership, creating a cycle of interaction and support (Berryman & Kavka, 2017; Bruno & Chung, 2017; Anjani et al., 2020). BJs, for instance, foster close relationships with viewers by talking like them or allowing intimate access to their personal lives (Anjani et al., 2020; Berryman & Kavka, 2017; Bruno & Chung, 2017). Viewers on AfreecaTV can have live conversations with their celebrity BJs. Even BJs receive viewers’ requests and act upon them instantly (Bruno & Chung, 2017). Celebrities can present themselves as caring and concerned about their emotions in this manner. With such acknowledgment, the fans reward their stars in various ways, including through donations and the purchase of their merchandise (Choe, 2019). The Mukbang phenomenon, where the act of eating becomes a shared experience and fans support their favorite BJs through donations and merchandise purchases, illustrates a profound shift in the nature of parasocial relationships and digital intimacy (Kircaburun et al., 2021; Wulf et al., 2021).

Social identity theory

The social identity theory proposed by Tajfel and Turner (1986) posits that a person’s sense of who they are is based on their group memberships. That is, the individual’s knowledge of his or her membership in a social group (or groups) and the emotional significance attached to that membership form the basis of social identity (Tajfel, 1974). The theory suggests that individuals develop a collective identity as a result of their membership in a group, and this identity shapes their behaviors, attitudes, and social interactions.

According to social identity theory, people are motivated to form a social identity for two reasons,: uncertainty reduction and self-esteem (Abrams & Hogg, 1988). When a person identifies as a member of a specific group, he or she not only gains similarity but also helps to organize a vastly complex world into a more processable and manageable cognitive load (Anstee, 2012). This is a type of cognitive shortcut, or heuristic, that reduces uncertainty and affects our perceptions, preferences, and judgments in various ways (Anstee, 2012). Besides, members in the same group are more likely to behave in accordance with the values and beliefs of the in-group (Fielding, McDonald, & Louis, 2008). Indeed, group membership is dependent on following group norms. As the individual adopts group norms in a specific social group, following norms generates esteem and a sense of self (Anstee, 2012). Self-esteem is built in the in-group so that individuals feel like they belong to their own specific group. Positive intergroup differentiation boosts self-esteem (Abrams & Hogg, 1988).

Despite the lack of physical interaction, members of online communities develop a sense of social identity (Diwanji et al., 2020; Hu, Zhang, & Wang, 2017; Laffan, 2021; Sicilia & Palazón, 2008). In studies of online brand communities, marketing researchers discovered that members feel connected to other members and separate themselves from outsiders; members in the brand community frequently derive a sense of belonging from their membership (Labrecque, 2014; Lee & Watkins, 2016). Baker and White (2010) found those who have a strong social identity with a social networking site are more likely to use it frequently. Additionally, those who are invited by others with a similar social identity are more likely to stay longer and be more active in the network (Baker & White, 2010).

Aside from parasocial relationships between BJs and viewers, social identity among viewers can provide insight into why they are so loyal to their BJs and streaming channels (Hu et al., 2017). Watching the eating show with others can help to form a social identity, which in turn affects their value perception and loyalty behavior (Bruno & Chung, 2017; Wu & Li, 2018). Viewing Mukbang together has numerous positive effects for viewers, including a reduction of social isolation through the creation of a sense of belonging to a community, subjective closeness for those seeking companionship and a dinner partner, and satisfaction of physical and sentimental hunger for those on a diet and/or living in single-person households (Hong & Park, 2018). When people are feeling lonely, belonging to a group provides them with much relief and confidence (Laffan, 2021). Even if all viewers are strangers, they can sense the presence of others via the chat screen, comments, and likes (Hu et al., 2017). For some viewers, live chat during and after Mukbang may be more important than Mukbang itself (Bruno & Chung, 2017). When the eating show is done, viewers remain logged in to discuss various topics related to their daily lives. These chat interactions foster empathy between BJs and viewers, as well as between viewers (Bruno & Chung, 2017; Choe, 2019). A viewer identifies with other viewers when they see a similarity in values and beliefs between the group and themselves. Within the viewer group, group identity strengthens a member’s social, emotional, and psychological ties (Hu et al., 2017).

The concept of identity and sense of belonging in Mukbang communities may be distinct due to the unique interactive experience they offer, centered around the shared activity of eating. While other communities might form around interests or activities, Mukbang directly simulates a social dining experience. This can be particularly resonant in cultures where communal eating is an important social ritual. In Mukbang, viewers may feel a personal connection to the host, as if sharing a meal with them, despite the digital medium (Cha, 2014). This dynamic can create a strong sense of camaraderie and belonging, as viewers not only interact with the host but also participate in a shared experience with others in the live chat. This collective experience, heightened by the intimacy of eating, may forge a different kind of communal identity compared to other groups.

In conclusion, the emergence of real-time, interactive streaming on platforms such as AfreecaTV, Huya, and Twitch has significantly bolstered parasocial relationships. BJs on these platforms easily engage with and satisfy their viewers by directly addressing their desires and providing emotional care (Wulf et al., 2021). This dynamic renders the viewer experience enjoyable and can even foster a sense of addiction, leading to high levels of viewer satisfaction (Kim, Liu, & Chang, 2022; Stein, Linda Breves, & Anders, 2022). Engaging in live chats, viewers develop a sense of in-group belonging, enhancing their connection to the BJs and each other, thereby fostering a shared social identity (Keys, 2020). Such identification not only drives behavior that aligns with the group but also engenders deep loyalty (Wu & Li, 2018). This capacity of individual streaming platforms to cultivate appealing qualities, social identity, and self-esteem offers them a distinct edge over traditional media, which typically offers only unidirectional communication. In the next section, we will discuss how individual broadcasting platforms impact various industries.

Implications of Mukbang phenomenon

The impact on the entertainment industry

In recent years, sweeping changes across cultural, technological, and business landscapes have fundamentally altered various industries, posing significant challenges for executives and managers grappling with decision-making in an increasingly complex world. This shift is particularly pronounced in the entertainment industry in the United States, which has historically hinged on the success of blockbusters and the allure of superstars (Elberse, 2013). Evidence of this shift can be seen in the transformation of the industry’s business model. Where once blockbusters and star-driven content were the benchmarks of success, we are now witnessing a steep decline in the production of mid-budget films, once a mainstay of Hollywood’s output (Fritz, 2018). The current trend favors franchise filmmaking, as underscored by the fact that the top five new releases in 2022 commanded an unprecedented 32% of the box office, a notable increase from 21% in 2017 (Fritz, 2018). This data not only illustrates a narrowing in the type of content that garners success but also suggests a broader industry pivot towards a franchise-focused business model that is squeezing out traditional forms. Concurrently, the TV industry, once reliant on high cable subscription fees and a limited variety of entertainment offerings, is now facing its own set of challenges, potentially heralding a similar overhaul in its revenue and content distribution models.

Entertainment giants are rapidly adapting to counter the significant decline in traditional media viewership and subscriptions (Feix, 2021). For instance, Disney has adopted a multifaceted approach to address these challenges, which includes vertical integration and strategic content bundling, bolstered by substantial investments in content creation and the development of new delivery platforms such as online streaming services. This strategic pivot was exemplified by Disney’s substantial acquisition of 21st Century Fox’s assets for $71.3 billion in 2016 (Fritz, 2018). This move not only secured Disney’s ownership of lucrative franchises like Avatar and the X-Men but also gave it control over Hulu, thereby expanding its streaming capabilities. Embracing its transformation into a digital-first company, Disney launched its own streaming service, offering an extensive library of its existing movies and TV shows alongside new, platform-exclusive productions. The content expansion strategy is evident as Disney, previously scaling back on film production, is now ramping up its output to enhance the appeal of its streaming service (Fritz, 2018). In parallel, AT&T’s acquisition of Time Warner for $85 billion in 2016 represents a similar strategic shift within the industry (Shapiro, 2021). Time Warner underwent significant restructuring post-acquisition to create WarnerMedia, culminating in the 2019 launch of a comprehensive on-demand video service (Feix, 2021). This service integrates the prestige of HBO with a curated selection of both new and classic Warner Bros. films, illustrating the industry-wide movement towards consolidated, on-demand digital entertainment platforms (Katz, 2020).

The rise of individual streaming platforms like those hosting Mukbang and similar content, however, has already begun to transform the entertainment industry. In the current entertainment landscape, marked by fierce competition for consumer engagement, traditional one-way content delivery is at risk of becoming outdated due to the rising prominence of live-streaming channels (Durrani, 2024; Holiber, 2024). Today’s consumers not only crave but have grown to expect interactive, two-way communication afforded by real-time media, which often provides a fresher and more engaging experience than conventional video content (Dean, 2022; Liao et al., 2023). The influence of Mukbang demonstrates the evolving nature of the entertainment industry, reflecting changes in technology, culture, and consumer preferences. As the industry continues to adapt to these trends, we can expect to see further innovation in how content is created, distributed, and monetized. The impact of Mukbang on the entertainment industry has been multifaceted and significant, and we summarize its influence as follows:

• (1)

  Content diversity: The “Mukbang” trend is a testament to the long tail theory’s cultural implications in various industries, showing how the digital age has enabled a wider variety of cultural products to be produced, distributed, and consumed globally. As Mukbang has expanded the types of content available, the entertainment industry is likely to see an even greater diversification of content. It has introduced a new format where eating is combined with performance and personal interaction, thus broadening the spectrum of what is considered entertaining content. Individual streaming offers a glimpse into the vast potential for niche programming, which could lead to more specialized channels catering to a wide array of interests.

• (2)

  Audience engagement: The interactive nature of Mukbang, which often includes real-time communication between the host and viewers, has set new standards for audience engagement. This level of interaction has influenced how other content creators and entertainment platforms think about engaging with their audiences. As individual streaming continues to capture audience attention, traditional media outlets may experience intensified competition, prompting them to innovate and perhaps integrate interactive elements into their content.

• (3)

  Shift in viewing habits: Mukbang has contributed to the shift from traditional media consumption to online streaming. It showcases that audiences are interested in longer-form, unscripted content, disrupting traditional programming, which is usually highly produced and scripted. As viewers continue to embrace the raw, unpolished nature of individual streaming, production strategies may adapt, focusing less on gloss and more on substance and connection. Besides, there will likely be a more pronounced shift towards participatory culture in entertainment, where viewers are not just passive consumers but active participants (Brown & Moberly, 2020). Engagement tools like live chats and polls could become standard features across streaming services.

• (4)

  Globalization of local cultures: The success of Mukbang has shown how local content can go global. Mukbang started in South Korea and has gone global, which is evidence of how local entertainment can become international. This has implications for the global reach of cultural phenomena and showcases the power of digital platforms in spreading cultural practices. This trend is expected to continue, with cultural exchanges becoming more frequent and global audiences becoming more accepting of diverse content.

• (5)

  Content creator empowerment: Mukbang’s success has empowered individual content creators by showing that they can build substantial audiences without traditional media backing (Lee & Wan, 2023; Lee & Watkins, 2016). The democratization of content creation through individual streaming platforms empowers more people to produce and share content, potentially leading to a more inclusive industry and a significant shift in the entertainment industry landscape.

• (6)

  Emergence of new business models: As individual streaming platforms become more prominent, new business models are likely to emerge that capitalize on direct viewer support, such as subscriptions, donations, and pay-per-view for special content. Mukbang has highlighted the profitability of niche markets. It illustrates that content does not need to have mass appeal to be economically viable, which can lead to more diverse content production in the entertainment industry.

The impact of Mukbang on the entertainment industry has been multifaceted and profound. The ascent of Mukbang demonstrates the evolving nature of the entertainment industry, reflecting changes in technology, culture, and consumer preferences. As the industry continues to adapt to these trends, we can expect to see further innovation in how content is created, distributed, and monetized.

The impact on the television industry and advertisers

The traditional television business model was straightforward: networks broadcasted content interspersed with advertising to wide audiences, with advertisers funding the majority of network revenue. Inaccessible regions were served by cable providers for a fee. Because TV networks market to large audiences, their programming must appeal to a wide range of people. Furthermore, because the media was largely supported by advertisers historically accounting for up to two-thirds of network income in the U.S. (Fixmer, 2010), they had to be aware of the advertisers' needs and demands. Production studios that create content such as TV series are constrained by the monopoly of the cable system and the largest TV networks as they control the viewers and the advertising dollars.

The arrival of individual streaming platforms, such as AfreecaTV and Twitch, heralded a paradigm shift. These platforms empower virtually anyone to create and distribute content, engaging with audiences directly through innovative digital monetization methods. The implications for advertisers are substantial. First, the precision and spontaneous targeting afforded by these platforms disrupts the traditional, vertical media market of TV networks, content providers, and advertisers. Content producers like BJs can directly connect with the audience, eschewing the need for network intermediaries and enabling advertisers to deliver more nuanced and granular advertising messages. Unlike traditional networks selling advertising slots in the upfront and scatter markets, committing most inventory months in advance (Popescu & Seshadri, 2013), the emergent streaming platforms offer a flexible and instantaneous advertising model. This novel ad sales approach is set to minimize upfront sales risks, streamline negotiation complexities, and foster a more adaptive, user-targeted advertising landscape. Second, advertisers would benefit from targeting specific channels that are best suited to their products and messages. The enhanced data from these digital platforms enables advertisers to craft highly tailored ads. This responsiveness is particularly valuable in engaging younger demographics, notably the unpredictable yet highly sought-after 10s to 20s age bracket (AfreecaTV, 2022). As viewers spend more time on individual streaming platforms, advertisers may shift budgets from traditional media to these new channels, seeking to capitalize on the targeted and engaged audiences they provide.

The impact on the retail industry

The traditional 4P’s marketing mix—comprising Product, Price, Promotion, and Place—has long served as a foundational model for translating marketing plans into action. This approach, while effective in the past, may be less aligned with the evolving consumer landscape shaped by the rapid advancement of IT and the Internet. Today’s consumers navigate a multitude of specialized online markets, shifting the business paradigm toward “social commerce,' where purchasing decisions are increasingly influenced by peer recommendations and word-of-mouth via digital networks (Wu & Li, 2018).

As viewers forge parasocial relationships with BJs, they come to regard these personalities as trusted advisers, potentially revolutionizing the retail sector (Rubin et al., 1985). As BJs cultivate authenticity and trust, they rise in influence, potentially reshaping purchasing behaviors (Kozinets, 1999). When BJs engage as brand ambassadors, they can significantly enhance brand value, create a congruent brand-user image, and elevate the perceived value of the brand (Lee & Watkins, 2016). Such parasocial interactions bolster brand connectedness, augmenting brand loyalty and increasing the propensity for consumers to share personal information with brands (Labrecque, 2014). The impact of individual streaming like Mukbang on the retail industry could be extensive, with several key areas likely to be influenced:

• (1)

  Product placement and promotion: As Mukbang streamers often have significant influence over their viewers, brands have begun to see the potential in partnering with them for product placements and endorsements. Similar to how Mukbang hosts can influence food sales, individual streamers in other sectors could drive the popularity and sales of retail products (Lee & Wan, 2023). Brands may seek partnerships for direct product placements within these streams.

• (2)

  Changes in consumer behavior: Viewers of individual streams often develop strong parasocial relationships with the hosts. This could lead to streamer-endorsed products being more sought after, changing the dynamics of how consumers discover and purchase products (Hamid, 2022).

• (3)

  Growth of niche markets: Individual streamers often cater to specific niches, which can lead to increased demand for specialized products. Retailers may respond by offering more niche products and tailoring their inventory to the diverse preferences of different streaming audiences.

• (4)

  Rise of influencer-branded products: Popular individual streamers may launch their own branded products, similar to Mukbang BJs selling merchandise (Gehlen et al., 2023, June 28). This could become a more common revenue stream for BJs and a new product category for retailers.

• (5)

  Live shopping events: Drawing inspiration from the interactivity of Mukbang, retailers might host live shopping events where consumers can engage with hosts and purchase products in real-time, blending entertainment with shopping.

• (6)

  Data-driven personalization: Retailers could utilize data from streaming platforms to better understand consumer preferences and tailor their marketing and product development accordingly.

• (7)

  Supply chain adaptation: As individual streamers can cause sudden spikes in demand for specific products, retailers might need more agile supply chains to respond quickly to these trends (Westcott, 2022).

In summary, individual streaming platforms like those hosting Mukbang have the potential to reshape the retail industry by influencing advertising, consumer behavior, product demand, and the overall shopping experience.

Conclusion

Streaming platforms such as AfreecaTV and Twitch have revolutionized media consumption by empowering users to become both producers and consumers, a role known as “prosumers.' Unlike traditional media, these platforms offer a plethora of channels and ease of access, coupled with interactive features like live chat and digital rewards, leading to a superior entertainment experience. They facilitate deep parasocial relationships and allow for a sense of community (Choe, 2019) and shared social identity, enriching viewer engagement beyond passive consumption.

The decline in traditional television viewership signifies an industry at an inflection point. Live streaming’s ascendancy challenges the long-standing, one-dimensional content model. Similar to how digital platforms like iTunes revolutionized the music industry by shifting consumption from physical to digital formats, and Craigslist disrupted the newspaper classified ads sector by moving listings online (Hagel, Brown, Wooll, & De Maar, 2016), individual broadcasting platforms are transforming the traditional entertainment industry. These platforms are dismantling the conventional, centralized models of content distribution, allowing for a more fragmented and individualized media environment. They enable creators to directly reach their audiences, bypassing traditional media gatekeepers and altering the dynamics of content creation, distribution, and consumption. Individual streaming platforms are poised to reshape the entertainment, television, and retail landscapes through personalized, interactive experiences. The future of media lies in harnessing these digital advances to meet evolving consumer demands, creating opportunities for innovation and new business strategies in the face of these disruptive trends.

Figures

Figure 1

Screenshot from YouTube video by BJ 라오 (BJ Lao) on AfreecaTV, available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CjjVCiNW-YA