Knowledge in the Making: Academic Freedom and Free Speech in America's Schools and Universities

Citation

by Jessica Stubblefield, R. (2013), "Knowledge in the Making: Academic Freedom and Free Speech in America's Schools and Universities", Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. 51 No. 3, pp. 407-410. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578231311311537

A quick glance at the title, Knowledge in the Making, might cause one to assume that this book deals with gaining wisdom in how to study or how to better understand what one reads. As the reader looks on, though, the phrase Academic Freedom and Free Speech in America's Schools and Universities is included under the main title. Joan DelFattore's (2010) book raises crucial questions. Can we honestly share our opinions when they relate to controversial issues? Are we truly free to speak? What should be done when personal rights are in conflict with a majority's idea of right or wrong? Isn’t ignoring conflict by refusing to discuss tough issues simply avoiding opposing thoughts? DelFattore probes deep into the concept of free speech, and she looks at the different angles of dialogue, including the way it impacts our schools.

One theme running through Joan DelFattore's work is the theme of free speech not being free from consequence, a truth that includes anyone with an opinion who is involved in the field of education. When a hot topic or a debatable issue arises in school curriculum or in social settings, that issue and the way it is discussed may end up in a courtroom if someone is offended or believes their rights were obstructed in a negative way.

Knowledge in the Making is composed of nine chapters, each chapter focussing on a controversial issue. The chapters explain the issues causing tension and how the tensions have led to court battles over academic freedom and free speech. This book takes the reader back in time to court cases that occurred, how they impacted education at the time, and how the decisions are currently being disputed among expert educators, students of all ages, family members of those in education, and involved members of society.

DelFattore begins each chapter with a quote. Chapter 7's quote is from Matthew W. Finkin and Robert C Post, from For the Common Good. “Academic freedom is not the freedom to speak or to teach just as one wishes. It is the freedom to pursue the scholarly profession, inside and outside the classroom, according to the norms and standards of that profession” (p. 179). Locus of control and academic freedom are the two primary themes embedded in Knowledge in the Making. These themes are discussed in light of the controversial topics of race, homosexuality, and evolution; all of the situations included in this book revolve around or stem from these three topics.

Chapter 1 analyzes personal expression in regards to the spoken and printed voice at all educational levels. When university professors spend time researching and they arrive at conclusions, their findings may conflict with the practices deemed acceptable by those spending time daily in the field of practice. The lens in which opinions are based frame how individuals view the world, conversations that take place, and the people involved in the conversations. Two areas of deep debate are science and religion. How they relate to one another and how they are presented in learning environments causes a great deal of contention. How one writes about, reflects on, and interprets history can greatly impact those around them.

Debates threaten academic freedom when educators are not allowed to teach and discuss certain issues, as well as when students are not able to learn about topics relating to faith, personal identity, or scientific ideas that are relevant to their academic progress.

A large portion of chapter 1 is devoted to the following lawsuits: Miles v. Denver Public Schools (1991), Hazelwood School District v. Kuhlmeier (1988), Hazelwood, Ward v. Hickey (1993), Lacks v. Ferguson Reorganized School District R‐2 (1998), Pickering v. Board of Education (1968), Connick v. Myers (1983), Mt. Healthy City School District Board of Education v. Doyle (1977), Pickering/Connick was Kirkland v. Northside Independent School District (1989), Boring v. Buncombe County Board of Education (1998), Bradley v. Pittsburgh Board of Education (1990), and Garcetti v. Ceballos (2006). Each of these court accounts plays a significant role in painting how the debatable issues have surfaced and how they are handled in the following chapters.

The war between the supposed dominant white and the inferior black that continues in our country today, because of the beliefs held by some, is acknowledged and examined in great detail in chapters 2 and 3. The concepts of freedom and equality for all members of our nation are discussed in light of the lawsuits that have come up regarding race. It is obvious that one group cannot speak freely regarding their judgmental beliefs while expecting the opposing group to remain silent. The dispute to include or eliminate Huckleberry Finn in High School Literature classes is a decision that the author spends a considerable amount of time discussing. Some take a stand against the book claiming that it is degrading to African‐American students and their culture. Others are in favor of the book remaining in the classroom because of its place in American literature. Both sides of the argument present valid points. This debate is exactly why DelFattore's book needs to be in print, to raise awareness to the hot topic issues in our education system and the impact they have on students, educators, and society as a whole.

Elementary, middle, and high schools are not the only academic settings where curriculum and events can be viewed as offensive. Graffiti artwork on university walls, club or organization comments and illustrations, and research topics can also evoke negative feelings among university faculty and students. Avoiding discussions by not creating boundaries regarding debatable issues causes as many problems in schools and universities as hashing out issues before they become problematic topics of conversation, which could ultimately turn out to be dialogues in courtrooms in front of a judge.

According to the author, debatable issues fall into one of four categories: being highlighted, supported, suppressed, or ignored. A call is going out for majority and minority groups, no matter what their opinion may be, to present themselves in public in a way that respects the different characteristics of others while sharing ideas that may be viewed as truths, though could also be harmful to others involved.

“Price‐fixing the free marketplace of ideas” is an excellent heading for Chapter 3. This next section of DelFattore's book focusses on the conflicting issues of race‐based intelligence. Jefferies and Levin are two professors who believe that the African‐American race is biologically less intelligent than those of the Caucasian community. They seem to act under the assumption that freedom of speech should also be freedom of consequences when making demeaning comments toward members of the African‐American population. Another professor, Gottfredson, was denied grant monies she had earned because she sought to spend the funds in such a way that would purpose her research toward investigations encouraging the belief that African‐Americans were less than whites. DelFattore acknowledges that their beliefs are their own, and that the parties being spoken against will rise up to fight for their freedom.

In Chapter 4, personal identity and homosexuality are introduced. Some in education believe all family structures should be represented in the classroom, while others believe that only the traditional family model should be present. One school sought to unite their community by bridging the gap between social groups because of recent hate crimes that were beginning to rise. The author points out that their goal was thwarted by the fact that they tried to promote tolerance without looking at or sharing all sides of the groups’ beliefs with equal attention of those who were involved. Promoting tolerance by showing that one way was better than another is not really promoting tolerance at all.

The fifth chapter brings evolution and creationism into the dialogue of academic freedom. Those who believe in Darwin's addition to the field of science have no problem educating children on the beginning of the world using the theory of evolution. Those who believe a Creator was involved in the creation of our universe believe that creation should be told, not apart from evolution necessarily, but in conjunction with it. Intelligent design is added to the scene in Chapter 6. DelFattore shares many examples of how these debates have driven numerous school systems into the judicial system to help in deciding if religious beliefs could be considered science. Since there is nothing to prove for creationism scientifically, the majority of the time evolution wins. Each school system decides for themselves whether to include creationism and the concept of intelligent design in their science programs or not. Every teacher and student connected to the course are expected to follow the guidelines set by the school. In the opinions of some, this requires individuals to ignore their faith, which requires them to relinquish their academic freedom with regards to free speech.

In “The Mote and the Beam,” Chapter 7, some examples of bias are looked at with close scrutiny. Organizations and grant donors determine where their money goes and who gets to spend it. Motives exist in any exchange of money, according to the writer, and each donation or offering usually has strings attached. Further in the chapter, the reader notices an emphasis on this belief because of the inclusion of theorists from various avenues of thought who stand in agreement with this opinion. Each one is referenced with the purpose of pointing out that political and religious organizations both spur, or force, education on in an effort to gain ground in sharing their beliefs.

In Chapter 8, many lawsuits are referenced revealing how academic freedom is impacted by the views of others and how the locus of control shifts depending on who is in control. The way that decisions have been made in the past often influences the decisions that are made in the future, a point that is made very clear by the progression on lawsuits. DelFattore references the 1915 Declaration and the 1940 Statement by sharing, “The purpose of academic freedom is not to privilege faculty but to serve society” (p. 219). The author makes clear in the closing chapter of the book, “Caution! Paradigms May Shift,” that academic freedom is at war. Then afterward, she shares that the ability to think broadly is a learned behavior, one that must be embedded in the framework of the educational system from children's very first experiences in the classroom and then through their grade school years. It must follow them into the university setting in order to produce a society that is willing to think rather than judge. Throughout the entire book, the reader notices how the author values purposeful controversy, not conversational wars where parties fight for their agenda without listening to the ideas of those who have opposing views.

DelFattore does not appear to take sides on any of the debatable issues discussed in her work. She adequately portrays each party's side and their point of view when expressing what happened in each situation. She exposes the opinions of others and the possible impacts they have on those living in their world, as well as the issues that are raised when debatable issues surface in the field of academics. It is obvious to the reader that DelFattore is not requiring or even expecting opinions of opposition to find an arena of common ground in order for an outcome to be achieved. What DelFattore hopes will come from sharing each of these situations, though, is that when communication takes place in academic settings, even outside the world of academia, that those with opposing voices would share their views in respectful ways so as not to demean or degrade members of the majority or minority parties participating in their discussion.

Speech, controversial or not, though protected by the first amendment, has consequences when it fuels emotions, especially those of anger and insecurity, a truth exemplified in every chapter of this text. The result of speaking, at times, is worth bringing up upsetting views, but this may result in discomfort that leads to the involvement of higher powers, such as members from the legal world of society. Knowing about and being aware of the divisive topics that exist can help when individuals communicate with one another.

DelFattore produced this work in an effort to benefit schools and universities in the work of educating children and adults who seek to keep academic freedom in mind. The case studies and court rulings shared are all rooted in various hot topic or debatable principles that impact the thinking of others, hence the title, Knowledge in the Making.

About the author

Jessica Stubblefield is a PhD Student at the University of Oklahoma.