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The purpose of this study is to analyze the determinants of changes in carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions for Turkey by utilizing the autoregressive distributed lag approach to investigate the long-run equilibrium relationships of CO₂ emissions between foreign tourist arrivals (FTAs) and electricity consumption (ELC). The results reveal that foreign tourists and ELC are significant determinants of a long-run equilibrium relationship with CO₂ emissions from electricity and heat production and CO₂ emissions from transport for Turkey, respectively. The results of the conditional error correction models (CECM) confirm that there are long-run causal relationships from the growing number of foreign tourist arrivals and the increase of ELC toward the growth of CO₂ emissions during 1960-2010. The results of autoregressive distributed lag (ARDL) error correction models for CO₂ emissions also validate significant dynamic relationships between CO₂ emissions, ELC and tourist arrivals in the short run.

ARDL modeling and Bounds test approach were used in this study.

Rapid tourism development in Turkey has triggered CO₂ emissions. The growth of CO₂ emissions in Turkey threatens sustainability. The hypothesis of “The growth of CO₂ emissions in Turkey” is validated. Tourist arrivals, ELC and CO₂ emissions are co-integrated. CECMs confirm the growth of CO₂ emissions during 1960-2010. ARDL modeling shows significant relationships between CO₂ emissions and other variables.

Results of ARDL error correction models for CO₂ emissions validate the hypothesis that there are significant dynamic relationships between CO₂ emissions, ELC and tourist arrivals in Turkey for the short run.

This study aims to empirically examine the relationship between energy consumption, agricultural economic growth and globalization in Turkey by using data from 1980 to 2018.

The Lee-Strazicich LM breakpoint test was used to test the stationarity of the variables. The presence of the long-run relationship between the variables was examined by using the Maki cointegration test. The dynamic ordinary least squares method was used to estimate the long-run coefficients of the model. The direction of causalities was determined using the Toda–Yamamoto causality test.

Research results showed that consuming energy on average of 14,460 GJ/hectare has returned $1,612 agricultural gross domestic products (GDP)/hectare per year. Turkey’s energy consumption (EC), GDP and globalization index (GI) from 1980 to 2018 increased by 2-fold, 3-fold and 1.5-fold, respectively. Research results also showed that Turkey’s EC was affected by GI and GDP.

The study suggests using environmentally friendly energy inputs and conscious consumption to reach growth targets and to reduce the pressure of intensive energy use on natural resources. Further research is needed for exploring the causality and relationship between EC and GI and along with other variables in the agricultural sector.

The study contributes two contributions to the existing literature. The first contribution is to examine the neglected relationship between GI and EC and GDP in Turkey. The second is that the EC data for Turkish agriculture used in the study were calculated by the authors.

Over the last decades, the need for sustainable energy production and consumption has been heavily discussed. However, there has been no consensus in the extant literature. Thus, to this end, this study aims to explore the long-run and causality connection among disaggregated energy consumption, environmental tax and economic growth in a carbon-function framework for Turkey.

This study uses annual frequency data for econometrics analysis. To this end, our analysis utilizes the autoregressive distributive lag (ARDL) technique for cointegration and long-run analysis, while the Granger causality was used for causality direction.

Economic growth drives Turkey’s Load Capacity Factor (LCF), indicating energy efficiency is linked to economic performance. Renewable energy boosts LCF, while nonrenewable energy hinders it. Population growth positively affects energy efficiency, but environmental taxes have minimal impact, suggesting policy reform is needed. These outcomes have far-reaching implications for macroeconomic policies and environmental sustainability in Turkish economy energy mix amidst its growth path.

The findings suggest the need for policy reforms prioritizing renewable energy investments to enhance Turkey’s energy efficiency and sustainability. Additionally, the current environmental tax structure requires reevaluation to support sustainable energy practices better. These policy changes are crucial for balancing Turkey’s economic growth with environmental goals, ensuring a more sustainable energy future.

This study explores the role of government policy in form of environmental tax in environmental performance in Turkey.