Steel reinforcement embedded in concrete is normally protected from corrosion by the formation of a thin passive surface film in the highly alkaline environment provided by the…
Abstract
Steel reinforcement embedded in concrete is normally protected from corrosion by the formation of a thin passive surface film in the highly alkaline environment provided by the cement paste and pore solution surrounding the steel. Atmospheric carbon dioxide reacts with the alkaline cement paste reducing the level of alkalinity, a process known as carbonation. Steel in carbonated concrete is no longer protected and in the presence of moisture and oxygen can corrode freely. Alternatively, the presence of sufficient quantities of chloride ions at the surface of the steel can cause local depassivation of the reinforcement resulting in pitting corrosion. Chloride ions may be present as a result of admixtures in the original mix or permeation into the concrete from external sources, such as road de‐icing salts or sea spray.
Paul S. Lambert, Koon Leai Larry Tan, Kenneth Prandy, Vernon Gayle and Manfred Max Bergman
This paper aims to present reasons why social classifications which use occupations should seek to adopt “specific” approaches which are tailored to the country, time period and…
Abstract
Purpose
This paper aims to present reasons why social classifications which use occupations should seek to adopt “specific” approaches which are tailored to the country, time period and gender of the subjects under study.
Design/methodology/approach
The relative motivations for adopting a specific approach to social classifications are discussed and theoretical perspectives on specificity and empirical evidence on the contribution of specific approaches are reviewed. Also the practical costs of implementing specific social classifications are evaluated, and the authors' development of the “GEODE” data service (grid‐enabled occupational data environment), which seeks to assist this process, is discussed.
Findings
Specific approaches make a non‐trivial difference to the conclusions drawn from analyses of occupation‐based social classifications. It is argued that the GEODE service has reduced the practical challenges of implementing specific measures.
Research limitations/implications
There remain conceptual and pragmatic challenges in working with specific occupation‐based social classifications. Non‐specific (“universal”) measures are adequate for many purposes.
Practical implications
The paper argues that there are few excuses for ignoring specific occupation‐based social classifications.
Originality/value
The paper demonstrates that recent technological developments have shifted the balance in the long‐standing debate between universal and specific approaches to occupation‐based social classifications.
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Paul Belleflamme and Thomas Lambert
This chapter shows how the theory of industrial organization can help us understand some important aspects of crowdfunding that go beyond the finance sphere of the firm. A special…
Abstract
This chapter shows how the theory of industrial organization can help us understand some important aspects of crowdfunding that go beyond the finance sphere of the firm. A special attention is devoted to the role and behavior of crowdfunding platforms, which intermediate between entrepreneurs and contributors.
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Abstract
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The purpose of this paper is to articulate a theory which connects social stratification processes to the international problem of human trafficking for sex and labor purposes.
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to articulate a theory which connects social stratification processes to the international problem of human trafficking for sex and labor purposes.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper develops a social politics theory to connect concepts from social stratification to the study of human trafficking. It draws on data provided by the US Department of Health and Human Services' Rescue and Restore program for trafficked victims to illustrate how traffickers move victims trans‐nationally. It cites sources from Australia and Sweden to show how national laws and policies regarding prostitution can contribute to or discourage human trafficking for sex and labor purposes.
Findings
The social politics theory is a theoretical idea based on observations of how social, political, legal, and economic changes within “Weak” and “Failing” states create an environment conducive to human trafficking for sex and labor purposes as well as other forms of injustices.
Originality/value
The social politics theory was created to acknowledge the influence of extraneous combined socio‐political and socio‐economic forces existing in modern societies.
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The purpose of this contribution is the investigation and the assessment of François Perroux’s book – Unités Actives et Mathématiques Nouvelles – Révision de la théorie de…
Abstract
The purpose of this contribution is the investigation and the assessment of François Perroux’s book – Unités Actives et Mathématiques Nouvelles – Révision de la théorie de l’équilibre économique général (Perroux, 1975a) – in connection with the research program he initiated before and during the Second World War. Concerning the analytical relevance of this book there is no consensus. According to some economists it has to be considered as the masterpiece of Perroux’s intellectual project which provides an alternative approach to the usual theory of general economic equilibrium (GEE). Others think that today the book is almost entirely forgotten and it does not help really to improve Perroux’s general research project. We try to set here our own view combining two ways of proceeding in the investigation about the relevance of the book. The first one develops an analysis of Unités Actives as dispassionate as possible, avoiding taking into account the personality as well as the social and political views of François Perroux. The second favors a retrospective approach relating the 1975 book to the previous contributions of the author. The first three sections of our contribution are dedicated to Perroux’s contributions written before his attempt to “revise” the usual version of the GEE theory. The five following sections are devoted to the direct contents of the “revision” of this theory and tries to propose a global assessment of it.
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The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between social and gender inequalities and how they have been studied over the last 30 years. What have we learned, as…
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between social and gender inequalities and how they have been studied over the last 30 years. What have we learned, as academic sociologists in higher education, about how the socio‐cultural context, policies and global social transformations in the UK, and North America influence social stratification? The key focus is on how gender differences influence forms of social stratification through complex relations between “work”, family and education.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper reflects on changing research methodologies from their origins in sociology and second wave feminism by addressing three international studies about the troubled question of mothers’ work. All three studies reflexively address the question of changing knowledge and methodologies about social inequality or stratification.
Findings
The paper finds that while all three studies are from a feminist perspective and consider methodologies in the light of the so‐called “neo‐liberal project” and the knowledge economy, they come to rather divergent conclusions. The three studies illustrate the complexities of knowledge and methodologies about social stratification and gender inequalities.
Originality/value
The paper demonstrates how alternative methods contribute to our knowledge and the rich diversity of sociological work as an academic practice.
The purpose of this paper is to explain the difference between social inequality and identity.
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to explain the difference between social inequality and identity.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper presents a conceptual view.
Findings
The paper notes that the concepts are often confused, as in arguments that equality is impossible because everyone is different. It is pointed out that equality and inequality are not opposites; that equality is simply the zero point on the infinite range of inequality. The existence of inequality depends on socially recognised difference. The difference may often be simply a basis for socially imposed inequalities, as with ethnicity and gender, or it may be a real cause of inequality as with health differences. Nine important inter‐related bases of inequality are considered. Equality does not require zero inequality on all aspects but merely a balance of inequalities. However, the complexity means it is difficult to define or recognise total equality. The nearest would be that all individuals are regarded and treated as equally important. The zero point of inequality may be unattainable, but the real issue is the actual extent of inequality, which could be very substantially reduced.
Originality/value
This original paper is of value in correcting some misconceptions and improving understanding of an important subject.
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The purpose of this paper is to foreground social relations and inter‐connections as important components in a conceptualisation of social structure. The paper argues that the…
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to foreground social relations and inter‐connections as important components in a conceptualisation of social structure. The paper argues that the seeming disconnection between the normative and the social structural is a problem of explanation rather than a novel feature of contemporary social life.
Design/methodology/approach
Data are used from extended interviews conducted on two areas, concerning ethnicity and belonging, and gender, work and care, generated during the ESRC funded “CAVA” project (Research Group for the Study of Care, Values and the Future of Welfare).
Findings
It is argued that more productive analyses of social diversity and social change ensue from better delineating the mutuality of normative and social processes.
Originality/value
Through its cultural turn, sociological research has reaffirmed the importance of normative and evaluative processes in shaping human experience and social life. However, new accounts have faced difficulties in connecting the normative and subjective with social structural processes. This paper confronts that challenge.