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The purpose of the study was to identify and analyze the fuzzy relationships among criteria for the development of community-based tourism (CBT) in Malaysia through a multi-stakeholder lens. By exploring these relationships, the study aimed to provide valuable insights for stakeholders and policymakers to enhance the sustainability and effectiveness of CBT initiatives in Malaysia. The focus was on understanding the interplay between environmental, economic and socio-cultural criteria to guide decision-making and planning processes for sustainable tourism development.

The study utilized a quantitative approach, specifically employing a fuzzy multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) model known as decision-making trial and evaluation laboratory (DEMATEL). This methodology allowed for the integration of diverse perspectives from multiple stakeholders involved in CBT in Malaysia. By using DEMATEL, the researchers were able to analyze the complex relationships among sustainable criteria, identify causal factors and assess the interdependencies among environmental, economic and socio-cultural dimensions. The approach aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of the criteria influencing the sustainability of CBT development in Malaysia.

The findings of the study revealed that environmental and economic factors emerged as pivotal causal criteria influencing socio-cultural outcomes in the development of CBT in Malaysia. The research highlighted the importance of multi-stakeholder collaboration in building sustainability in CBT, emphasizing the need for regular meetings, shared decision-making processes and clear communication channels among all involved parties. These insights empower stakeholders to make informed decisions and prioritize criteria for sustainable CBT development, ultimately contributing to the well-being of communities, preservation of natural and cultural heritage, and long-term environmental sustainability.

The study's limitations include the focus on CBT in Malaysia, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other contexts. Additionally, the research relied on a quantitative approach, potentially overlooking qualitative nuances in stakeholder perspectives. Future studies could address these limitations by exploring diverse geographical locations and incorporating qualitative methods to capture a more comprehensive understanding of sustainable criteria in CBT development. These implications suggest opportunities for further research to validate and extend the findings in different contexts and with a broader range of stakeholder perspectives.

The practical implications of the study include providing guidance for tourism policymakers and key stakeholders in developing effective policy interventions for CBT in Malaysia. By understanding the complex relationships among sustainable criteria, stakeholders can make informed decisions to foster environmental, economic and socio-cultural growth in CBT initiatives. The findings offer insights for creating economic opportunities, promoting fair trade practices and enhancing linkages between CBT and local businesses. These practical implications aim to support sustainable decision-making, planning processes and implementation strategies to ensure the long-term success and positive impact of CBT in Malaysia.

The social implications of the study underscore the importance of multi-stakeholder collaboration in CBT development in Malaysia. By engaging various stakeholders, including host communities, government agencies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and tourists, the research promotes social cohesion, cultural exchange and community empowerment. Enhancing social interactions and mutual understanding among stakeholders can lead to inclusive decision-making processes, equitable distribution of benefits and the preservation of local heritage and traditions. These social implications emphasize the potential for CBT to contribute to social well-being, cultural preservation and sustainable development, fostering positive social impacts and strengthening community resilience.

The originality and value of the study lie in its exploration of the complex relationships among sustainable criteria for CBT development in Malaysia from a multi-stakeholder perspective. By utilizing the DEMATEL method and quantitative analysis, the research offers a novel approach to understanding the causal factors influencing environmental, economic and socio-cultural outcomes in CBT initiatives. The study's findings provide valuable insights for stakeholders and policymakers to make informed decisions, prioritize criteria and develop effective strategies for sustainable CBT development. This original contribution enhances the understanding of sustainable criteria relationships and empowers stakeholders to drive positive change in the tourism sector.

This study aims to examine the relationship between corporate governance mechanisms, namely, board independence, board size and gender diversity, and the extent of corporate social responsibility (CSR) disclosure for companies listed on the Saudi stock exchange.

Data has been extracted from the annual reports of a sample of 67 companies listed on the Saudi Stock Exchange during the period 2014–2019. Three panel data techniques have been used to investigate the association between governance variables and the extent of CSR disclosures after statistically controlling the effects of the size, leverage and profitability of the companies.

The results of this study indicate that board independence and board size have positive and significant associations with the extent of CSR disclosures. However, the study finds that the percentage of female representation on the board has a positive effect on the extent of CSR disclosure, but that this effect is not statistically significant.

The results of this study are limited to the context in which the study was conducted, which is the Saudi stock exchange during the period 2014–2019, and then the generalization of the results may be limited to listed companies operating in a similar social and economic context. Also, the data sources in this study were limited to the annual reports of companies only.

The results of this study provide some indications for policymakers in Saudi Arabia to take what is necessary to promote corporate governance mechanisms and, therefore, enhance CSR practices.

This study contributes to the literature on CSR by providing empirical evidence on the impact of corporate governance mechanisms on the extent of CSR disclosure from one of the developing countries, which is Saudi Arabia.

As of 2022, the scope of the engagement and interest of debt capital providers in ESG reporting is mainly untapped. However, a vast amount of literature has produced conflicting findings about the importance of debt capital (leverage) as a factor in sustainability reporting (SR). This is the first meta-analysis reconciling the mixed results of 85 single country studies containing 131 effect sizes across 24,482 firms conducted over past three decades (1999–2022) investigating the influence of leverage on SR. The study emphasizes the significance of contextualizing research by identifying the macro-environmental elements modifying debt's impact on SR, through the use of the institutional theory. Eleven country variables were tested on the collected dataset, spread across 36 countries.

Meta-analysis technique for aggregation of existing extant empirical work. Continuous and categorical variable-based moderator analysis to demystify the influence of country characteristics affecting the leverage–SR relationship.

Results show positive significant impact of debt capital providers on SR. Country's level of development, GDP, extent of capital constraints in a country, financial sector development within a nation, country governance factors and corruption levels, country's culture, number of sustainability reporting instruments operational in a country and geographical location proved to be significant moderators.

The study details relevant meaningful research gaps, worthy of uptake by researchers to produce targeted research.

Governments must increasingly go beyond their mandated disclosure role and acknowledge the important institutional factors that have contributed to the expansion of ESG reporting through the creation of nation-specific tools, incentive structures and disclosure-encouraging regulations. To secure a steady flow of funding and prevent negative effects on company value and cost of capital in the midst of prolonged global economic upheaval, businesses must address the information requirements of lenders. The limited total effect size emphasizes the necessity for debt providers to step up their ESG activism and exercise their maximum power and potential in stimulating extensive SR firm-level practices.

The present study is the first meta-analysis reconciling the mixed results of 85 single-country studies containing 131 effect sizes across 24,482 firms conducted over the past three decades (1999–2022) investigating the influence of leverage on SR and demystifying the macro-environmental factors affecting the leverage–SR association.