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The study aims to investigate the effects of pre-loading histories (pre-shearing and pre-consolidation) on the liquefaction behaviour of saturated loose sand via discrete element method (DEM) simulations.

The pre-shearing history is mimicked under drained conditions (triaxial compression) with different pre-shearing strain levels ranging from 0% to 2%. The pre-consolidation history is mimicked by increasing the isotropic compression to different levels ranging from 100 kPa to 300 kPa. The macroscopic and microscopic behaviours are analysed and compared.

Temporary liquefaction, or quasi-steady state (QSS), is observed in most samples. A higher pre-shearing or pre-consolidation level can provide higher liquefaction resistance. The ultimate state line is found to be unique and independent of the pre-loading histories in stress space. The Lade instability line prematurely predicts the onset of liquefaction for all samples, both with and without pre-loading histories. The redundancy index is an effective microscopic indicator to monitor liquefaction, and the onset of the liquefaction corresponds to the phase transition state where the value of redundancy index is one, which is true for all cases irrespective of the proportions of sliding contacts.

The liquefaction behaviour of granular materials still remains elusive, especially concerning the effects of pre-loading histories on soils. Furthermore, the investigation of the effects of pre-consolidation histories on undrained behaviour and its comparison to pre-sheared samples is rarely reported in the DEM literature.

To review one of the earliest Chinese debates on socialism, highlighting the consequent changes in outlook by Sun Yat‐sen and Liang Qichao; and to demonstrate the influence of Western economic writers especially Richard T. Ely, Henry George, and German Bismarckian socialists.

Textual analysis of original Chinese‐language materials with extensive direct quotations (in translation).

Sun initially gave primary attention to land policy, using a (somewhat inconsistent) combination of George's “single tax” and a very different idea of land nationalization. As a result of the debate, however, Sun gave more attention to economic growth, capital formation, and import restriction. Liang initially favored Bismarckian socialism, but moved during the debate to increasing skepticism about a major economic role for government, recognizing the need for entrepreneurship and capital formation.

Existing literature fails to perceive the radical shifts in viewpoint which developed for both Sun and Liang. This is particularly important for Sun, whose later ideas had a major influence on Chinese economic policy after 1927.