Woon Weng Wong, Kwabena Mintah, Kingsley Baako and Peng Yew Wong
The paper is motivated by the paucity of empirical research on the determinants of capitalisation rates/yield in the commercial property market. Compared to property price…
Abstract
Purpose
The paper is motivated by the paucity of empirical research on the determinants of capitalisation rates/yield in the commercial property market. Compared to property price determinants, the capitalisation rate has received significantly less attention. This is somewhat surprising given that the capitalisation rate is a more insightful indicator for investors on commercial property market performance than merely price changes or trends. The capitalisation rate, measured as the ratio of net operating income to the property’s capital value, captures the asset’s overall ability to generate income which is crucial for investors who typically invest in property for their income-generating capacity. The purpose of this paper is to address these issues.
Design/methodology/approach
To evaluate the determinants of capitalisation rates, time series analysis was used. The data capture performance in the Australian commercial property market between 2005 and 2018. All macroeconomic and financial data are freely available from official sources such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics and the nation’s central bank. Methodology wise, given the problematic nature of the data such as a mixed order of integration and the possibility of cointegration amongst some of the I (1) variables, the autoregressive distributed lag model was selected given its flexibility and relative lack of assumptions.
Findings
Bond rates, market risk premiums, stock market excess returns and other macroeconomic variables were found to drive capitalisation rates of Australian commercial properties. A 1% increase in the bond rate results in approximately 0.3–2.4% increase in capitalisation rates depending on the sub-market. Further, a 1% increase in excess market returns results in a 0.01–0.02% increase in capitalisation rates. Regarding risk premiums, a 100 basis point increase in the BBB spread results in approximately 0.92–1.27% reduction in cap rates in certain markets.
Practical implications
Asset managers will find these results useful in asset allocation strategies. Commercial properties offer attractive investment qualities such as yield stability in periods of economic uncertainty while allowing for the possibility of capital growth through appreciation of the underlying asset. By understanding the factors that affect the capitalisation rate, practitioners may predict emerging trends and identify threats to portfolio return and stability. This allows better integration of commercial property in the construction of portfolios that remain robust in a variety of market conditions.
Originality/value
The contribution to literature is significant given the lack of similar studies in the Australian market. The performance of real estate assets using cap rates as a comparative measure to equities and bonds influences decisions in asset allocation strategies. It provides crucial information for investors to estimate the performance of commercial property. This research supports the notion that both space and capital market indicators jointly affect capitalisation rates. The findings expand the knowledge base relating to commercial properties and validate the assessments of investors, developers and valuers who utilise yield as a performance benchmark for asset allocation strategies.
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Kwabena Mintah, Kingsley Tetteh Baako, Godwin Kavaarpuo and Gideon Kwame Otchere
The land sector in Ghana, particularly skin lands acquisition and title registration are fraught with several issues including unreliable record-keeping systems and land…
Abstract
Purpose
The land sector in Ghana, particularly skin lands acquisition and title registration are fraught with several issues including unreliable record-keeping systems and land encroachments. The paper explores the potential of blockchain application in skin lands acquisition and title registration in Ghana with the aim of developing a blockchain-enabled framework for land acquisition. The purpose of this paper is to use the framework as a tool towards solving some of the loopholes in the process that leads to numerous issues bedeviling the current system.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper adopts a systematic literature review approach fused with informal discussions with key informants and leverages on the researchers’ own experiences to conceptualize blockchain application in skin lands acquisition in Ghana.
Findings
Problems bedeviling skin lands acquisition and title registration emanated from the issuance of allocation notes, payment of kola money and use of a physical ledger to document land transactions. As a result, the developed framework was designed to respond to these issues and deal with the problems. As the proposed blockchain framework would be a public register, it was argued that information on all transactions on a specific parcel of land could be available to the public in real-time. This enhances transparency and possibly resolves the issue of encroachments and indeterminate land boundaries because stakeholders can determine rightful owners of land parcels before initiating transactions.
Practical implications
Practically, blockchain technology has the potential to deal with the numerous issues affecting the smooth operation of skin lands acquisition and title registration in Ghana. Once the enumerated issues are resolved, there will be certainty of title to and ownership of land and property to drive investments because lenders could more easily ascertain owners of land parcels that could be used as collateral for securing loans. Similarly, property developers and land purchasers could easily identify rightful owners for land transactions. The government would be able to identify owners for land and property taxation.
Originality/value
This paper contributes to the literature on blockchain and application to land acquisition and title registration with a focus on a specific customary land ownership system.
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Gideon Kwame Otchere, Kwabena Mintah and Judith Callanan
Gated communities continue to spread in popularity across cities around the world. Ghana has seen considerable growth in the development of gated communities over the last few…
Abstract
Purpose
Gated communities continue to spread in popularity across cities around the world. Ghana has seen considerable growth in the development of gated communities over the last few years. This phenomenon manifests in the majority new residential developments and most forms of residential property advertisement in the capital city. The purpose of this paper is to explore the drivers of gated community developments in Ghana from the perspective of gated community developers.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper used a qualitative research approach. Through face-to-face semi-structured interviews, data was collected from purposively selected key stakeholders in the gated community development market, including developers, managers and consultants.
Findings
The drivers identified from the developers' perspective were the demand for gated community properties, the control over and ease of management of assets and interests, the high development/production cost of real estate and speculative development of gated community properties.
Originality/value
This paper is an initial study that explores the drivers of gated community developments in Ghana from the perspective of gated community developers. This paper extends the literature on gated communities beyond the residents perspective.
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Kwabena Mintah, David Higgins and Judith Callanan
Uncertainties in residential property investment performance require that real estate assets are designed in a flexible manner to respond to impacts of market dynamics. Though…
Abstract
Purpose
Uncertainties in residential property investment performance require that real estate assets are designed in a flexible manner to respond to impacts of market dynamics. Though estimating the cost of flexibility is straightforward, assessing the economic value of flexibility is not. The purpose of this study is to explore the potential practical application of real option analysis to determine the economic value of a switching output flexibility embedded in a residential property investment in Australia. The study involves the exploration of an optimal strategy for investment in a residential development through real option analysis and valuation of a mixed use investment.
Design/methodology/approach
The real option valuation model developed by McDonald and Siegel (1986) is adopted for the evaluation because the switching output flexibility is likened to a perpetual American call option with dividend payout.
Findings
Through real option analysis, the economic value of switching output flexibility of the mixed use building was determined to be higher than the initial upfront costs. Moreover, a payoff of about $4million was determined to be the value of the switching output flexibility, therefore justifying upfront investments in flexibility as an uncertainty and risk management tool.
Practical implications
This application is an important demonstration of the practical use of options pricing techniques (real options analysis) and delivers further evidence needed to support the adoption of real option valuation in practice. Flexibility can also enhance risks and uncertainty management in residential property investment better than the adjustment of discount rates.
Originality/value
There is limited evidence on the use of real options techniques for the valuation of switching output flexibility in practice, and this comes as an original application; both the case study and data are all initial applications of switching flexibility in the Australian property market.
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Kwabena Mintah, David Higgins, Judith Callanan and Ron Wakefield
Real option valuation is capable of accounting for uncertainties in residential development projects but still lacks practical adoption due to limited evidence to support…
Abstract
Purpose
Real option valuation is capable of accounting for uncertainties in residential development projects but still lacks practical adoption due to limited evidence to support application of the theory in practice. The purpose of this paper is to use option valuation to value staging option embedded in residential projects and compare with results from DCF to determine which of the two methods delivers superior results.
Design/methodology/approach
The fuzzy payoff method (FPOM), a real options model that uses scenario planning approach to generate a range of figures, from which a single-numerical value is computed for decision-making.
Findings
The results showed that the use of a range of figures was able to represent uncertainties to a higher degree of accuracy than the static DCF. As a result, the FPOM was able to capture about 3 per cent of the value of the project that was missed by the DCF. The staging option offers an opportunity to abandon unprofitable phases of a project, thereby limiting downside losses. Thus, real option models are practically applicable to cases in property sector.
Practical implications
Residential property developers must consider flexibility in financial feasibility evaluation of development because of the embedded value in uncertain property projects. It is important to account for optionality in financial evaluation of property projects for value maximisation.
Originality/value
The FPOM has been used for the first time to evaluate a horizontal phasing of a residential development project.
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Woon Weng Wong, Kwabena Mintah, Peng Yew Wong and Kingsley Baako
This study aims to examine the impact of lending liquidity on house prices especially during black swan events such as the Global Financial Crisis of 2007–08 and COVID-19…
Abstract
Purpose
This study aims to examine the impact of lending liquidity on house prices especially during black swan events such as the Global Financial Crisis of 2007–08 and COVID-19. Homeownership is an important goal for many, and house prices are a significant driver of household wealth and the wider economy. This study argues that excessive liquidity from central banks may be driving house price increases, despite negative changes to fundamental drivers. This study contributes to the literature by examining lending liquidity as a driver of house prices and evaluating the efficacy of fiscal policies aimed at boosting liquidity during black swan events.
Design/methodology/approach
This study aims to examine the impact of quantitative easing on Australian house prices during back swan events using data from 2004 to 2021. All macroeconomic and financial data are freely available from official sources such as the Australian Bureau of Statistics and the nation's Central Bank. Methodology wise, given the problematic nature of the data such as a mixed order of integration and the possibility of cointegration among some of the I(1) variables, the auto-regressive distributed lag model was selected given its flexibility and relative lack of assumptions.
Findings
The Australian housing market continued to perform well during the COVID-19 pandemic, with the house price index reaching an unprecedented high towards the end of 2021. Research using data from 2004 to 2021 found a consistent positive relationship between house prices and housing finance, as well as population growth and the value of work commenced on residential properties. Other traditional drivers such as the unemployment rate, economic activity, stock prices and income levels were found to be less significant. This study suggests that quantitative easing implemented during the pandemic played a significant role in the housing market's performance.
Originality/value
Given the severity of COVID-19, policymakers have responded with fiscal and monetary measures that are unprecedented in scale and scope. The full implications of these responses are yet to be completely understood. In Australia, the policy interest rate was reduced to a historic low of 0.1%. In the following periods house prices appreciated by over 20%. The efficacy of quantitative easing and associated fiscal policies aimed at boosting liquidity to mitigate the impact of black swan events such as the pandemic has yet to be tested empirically. This study aims to address that paucity in literature by providing such evidence.
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Peng Yew Wong, Woon-Weng Wong and Kwabena Mintah
The purpose of this paper is to validate and uncover the key determinants revolving around the Australian residential market downturn towards the 2020s.
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to validate and uncover the key determinants revolving around the Australian residential market downturn towards the 2020s.
Design/methodology/approach
Applying well-established time series econometric methods over a decade of data set provided by Australian Bureau of Statistics, Reserve Bank of Australia and Real Capital Analytics, the significant and emerging drivers impacting the Australian residential property market performance are explored.
Findings
Besides changes in the significant levels of some key traditional market drivers, housing market capital liquidity and cross-border investment fund were found to significantly impact the Australian residential property market between 2017 and 2019. The presence of some major positive economic conditions such as low interest rate, sustainable employment and population growth was perceived inadequate to uplift the Australian residential property market. The Australian housing market has performed negatively during this period mainly due to diminishing capital liquidity, excess housing supplies and retreating foreign investors.
Practical implications
A better understanding of the leading and emerging determinants of the residential property market will assist the policy makers to make sound decisions and effective policy changes based on the latest development in the Australian housing market. The results also provide a meaningful path for future property investments and investigations that explore country-specific effects through a comparative analysis.
Originality/value
The housing market determinants examined in this study revolve around the wider economic conditions in Australia that are not new. However, the coalesce analysis on the statistical results and the current housing market trends revealed some distinguishing characteristics and developments towards the 2020s Australian residential property market downturn.
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Kofi Mintah Oware, Gilbert Kwabena Amoako and Osman Babamu Halidu
This study examines the effect of gender board characteristics on the choice of sustainability report format in India. A sustainability report covers the environmental and social…
Abstract
Purpose
This study examines the effect of gender board characteristics on the choice of sustainability report format in India. A sustainability report covers the environmental and social impacts of firms. It is presented either as an integrated report with the rest of the financial reporting to stakeholders or a separate document (stand-alone) with the advantage of communicating better information.
Design/methodology/approach
The study uses an inclusive sample of 800 firm-year observations between 2010 and 2019. The study applies the binary probit and the instrumental variable probit regressions to analyse the data from the Indian Stock Exchange.
Findings
The authors find that female chief executive officers (CEOs) are more likely to choose stand-alone reports over integrated reporting. The authors also find that female CEOs with a duality role are insignificant in choosing between integrated reporting and stand-alone sustainability reporting. Furthermore, the study shows that gender board diversity (percentage of women over total board size) and females of two or less are insignificant. However, three or more females on the board significantly and positively affect stand-alone sustainability reporting. Similarly, independent female directors are more likely to choose stand-alone reporting over integrated reporting. Policymakers must encourage sensitive environmental firms to employ more female CEOs over male CEOs because female CEOs are more likely to adopt stand-alone sustainability reporting.
Originality/value
The authors’ study adds novelty to research because previous studies have only examined a female CEO and sustainability. However, this study is the first to investigate female CEOs' and female board members' choice of sustainability report format.