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The Reprocessing Engineering Division of British Nuclear Fuels undertakes the design of nuclear chemical plants for construction and subsequent operation at the Sellafield Works of the Reprocessing Operations Division. Plant construction cannot take place until it has been demonstrated that the chosen design will allow the plant to operate in an adequately safe manner, corresponding to an extremely low level of risk. Risk, or the cumulative frequency and consequences of all potential hazards, is evaluated by means of probabilistic risk assessments (PRA).

The purpose of this paper is to critically evaluate the contributions of six sigma methodology to the improvement of service quality. Since its development in the late 1980s, six sigma has been extensively applied in manufacturing and quasi‐manufacturing settings. This study aims to explore the challenges of six sigma in reaching a much wider field of application.

Utilizing the service quality framework, the authors assess the contributions of six sigma and explore its limitations when applied to services.

The relentless drive toward adopting six sigma to services has led both to a limited field of applications and to unrealistic expectations as to what six sigma is truly capable of achieving, particularly in knowledge‐based environments.

This research focuses on highlighting gaps in the six sigma as applied to services; further work is necessary to identify and develop new methods and to study their effectiveness.

The most immediate practical implication of this study is the call for the redesign of the curricula of six sigma black belts training programs; training in service quality is vital for the successful application of six sigma in service operations.

This study provides a fresh look into six sigma application to services by combining a thorough analysis of the service quality model with the in‐depth understanding of six sigma statistical concepts.

This study explores the impact of virtual classrooms as an emerging classroom typology in comparison to the physical classrooms in the design process. Two case studies were held in order to infer design students' classroom preferences in the project lifecycle. The findings put forth figures that compare two forms of design communication in the two classroom types in terms of their contribution to design development. Although the students acknowledged many advantages of web-based communication in the virtual classroom, they indicated that they are unwilling to let go off face-to-face encounters with the instructors and fellow students in the physical classroom. It is asserted that the future design studio will be an integrated learning environment where both physical and virtual encounters will be presented to the student. Utilizing the positive aspects of both communication techniques, a hybrid setting for the design studio is introduced, comprising the physical classroom as well as the virtual one. The proposed use for the hybrid setting is grouped under 3 phases according to the stage of the design process; as the initial, development and final phases. Within this framework, it is inferred that the design studio of the future will be an integrated form of space, where the physical meets the virtual.

Human error data in the form of human error probabilities should ideally form the corner‐stone of human reliability theory and practice. In the history of human reliability assessment, however, the collection and generation of valid and usable data have been remarkably elusive. In part the problem appears to extend from the requirement for a technique to assemble the data into meaningful assessments. There have been attempts to achieve this, THERP being one workable example of a (quasi) database which enables the data to be used meaningfully. However, in recent years more attention has been focused on the PerformanceShaping Factors (PSF) associated with human reliability. A “database for today” should therefore be developed in terms of PSF, as well as task/ behavioural descriptors, and possibly even psychological error mechanisms. However, this presumes that data on incidents and accidents are collected and categorised in terms of the PSF contributing to the incident, and such classification systems in practice are rare. The collection and generation of a small working database, based on incident records are outlined. This has been possible because the incident‐recording system at BNFL Sellafield does give information on PSF. Furthermore, the data have been integrated into the Human Reliability Management System which is a PSF‐based human reliability assessment system. Some of the data generated are presented, as well as the PSF associated with them, and an outline of the incident collection system is given. Lastly, aspects of human common mode failure or human dependent failures, particularly at the lower human error probability range, are discussed, as these are unlikely to be elicited from data collection studies, yet are important in human reliability assessment. One possible approach to the treatment of human dependent failures, the utilisation of human performance‐limiting values, is described.

This study explores the effects of different structures of accountability on the development of groupthink. Specifically, the differences between individual and collective accountability are examined and contrasted to a condition with no accountability. The groupthink phenomenon can be differentiated into collective avoidance, arising from a pessimistic perception of a decisional issue, and collective overoptimism. It is argued that structures of accountability can either promote or reduce groupthink, depending upon the way group members perceive the decisional issue. We tested the hypothesis that accountability can prevent the collective‐avoidance type of groupthink, and that individual accountability will be more effective in doing so than collective accountability, by preventing the possibility to “hide in the crowd.” The results confirm that under conditions conducive to collective avoidance, individual accountability is more effective in reducing groupthink‐like tendencies than collective accountability. However, group members expecting to be collectively responsible still display less symptoms of groupthink than control groups. In particular, accountability makes groups display more difficulty to reach consensus, stimulates group members to try to influence the decision making, results in a more equal dispersion of influence within the group, and in less risky decisions. Some methodological concerns regarding research on groupthink and accountability, and the implications of the findings for future research in this area are discussed.

Although the concept of groupthink (the extreme concurrence‐seeking tendency displayed by decision making groups), has been an influential one, empirical research has provided equivocal support for the groupthink model. In this paper, we review previous case and laboratory work on groupthink and identify empirical and theoretical inconsistencies. We then describe a model of groupthink as social identity maintenance (SIM) that is capable of reconciling these inconsistencies and summarize laboratory experiments that specifically test the SIM hypothesis. We use the model to suggest possible pitfalls of previous proposals for preventing groupthink when SIM pressures are operative. Finally, we suggest intervention strategies capable of mitigating groupthink due to SIM that have two objectives: (a) the reduction of pressures toward identity protection and (b) the stimulation of intellectual conflict.

Many techniques can be used for the surveillance and monitoring of process plant as a basis for integrity control associated with on‐condition maintenance and safety appraisal, reference 1, but before any technique is chosen an analysis must be made which rates the hazard in terms of its criticality and thus establish the situation with the greatest likelihood of occurrence, the gravest consequence and the mode of its appearance.

The power and usefulness of perceived risk theory in understanding shoppers’ behaviour has been demonstrated many times over recent years in the UK by the numerous food scares. The article explores how retailers use perceived risk in their strategies and develops the links between store attributes and risk dimensions. This re‐interpretation of previous store‐image studies provides a new conceptual framework for understanding store image and deepens our knowledge of how risk and risk‐reduction are operationalised in practice. The paper also reviews some evidence on factors which affect shoppers’ risk perceptions, e.g. age, gender, group discussion, brand name and shopping channel and discusses how the risk concept can be used by food retailers as well as presenting some ideas for future research.

Summary Reliability techniques in the widest sense may be applied to a diverse range of corporate activities, in order to predict the possibility of a successful outcome. The techniques could, for example, be applied to a series of commercial transactions, to a new marketing venture, or to research management. The outcome of any activity is sensitive to the configuration of the system producing it, and the probability of success may therefore be influenced by restructuring that system.

In this chapter, we identify three distinct transformational performance improvement (TPI) approaches commonly used to redesign work processes in health care organizations. We describe the unique components or tools that each approach uses to improve the delivery of health services. We also summarize what is empirically known about the effectiveness of each TPI approach according to systematic reviews and recent studies published in the peer-reviewed literature. Based on examination of this research, we discuss what knowledge is still needed to strengthen the evidence for whole system transformation. This involves the use of conceptual frameworks to assess and guide implementation efforts, and facilitators and barriers to change as revealed in a recent evaluation of one major initiative, the Lean Enterprise Transformation (LET) at the Veterans Health Administration. The analysis suggests ways in which TPI facilitators can be developed and barriers reduced to improve the effectiveness and sustainability of quality initiatives. Finally, we discuss appropriate study designs to evaluate TPI interventions that may strengthen the evidence for their effectiveness in real world practice settings.