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The purpose of this paper is to examine the influence of congruence (perceived and effective) and the level of visual attention towards sponsors on recall and purchase intention in sports sponsorship by applying neurophysiological measures.

This study is part of neuromarketing research applied to sports. The experiment entails eye tracking with 111 men and 129 women (n=24) with 24 sports posters of three different disciplines (sailing, tennis and F1), varying the congruence, the number of sponsors and the position (2×2×2). The data are analyzed via analysis of covariance and regression using ordinary least squares.

Brand recall is influenced by the number of sponsors present on the poster and by the time of fixation. Effective and perceived congruence covariance the purchase intention, but the full time of fixation on the sponsor does not. The latter only, purchase intention indirectly.

The results enable managers to implement better poster designs and sponsors to have objective measures of sponsorship.

There are few studies that analyze print media in sponsorship using neurophysiological techniques. This research is a pioneer in considering attention to sports posters to examine recall and purchase intention.

The aim of this study is to examine the influence of perceived sponsorship leverage on perceived product quality and the image transfer model, under moderation by fan involvement.

A self-report online survey was carried out after the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. Responses were received from 422 individuals in 21 countries. The leverage scale was validated using exploratory factor analysis. Then, partial least squares–structural equation modeling was employed to examine the validity and reliability of the scales and test the structural model. Finally, multigroup analysis was used to examine how involvement moderates the influence of leverage.

Attitudes toward sponsorship and purchase intention are influenced by the perceived leverage and quality of the product. The multigroup analysis shows that perceived leverage does not influence the attitudes of individuals with low involvement. The influence of perceived leverage on perceived product quality is greater in individuals with high involvement.

Sponsors should use collateral marketing strategies to target specific segments of individuals with high and low involvement separately. Showcasing the sponsoring products of brands renowned for their high quality could positively influence the results of sponsorship.

This article contributes to the sponsorship literature by exploring how sponsors can capitalize on collateral marketing actions. It also contributes to the theory of image transfer by exploring how perceived product quality can influence the effectiveness of sponsorship.

The purpose of this paper is to represent a pilot study which aims to explore the attention to sponsorship variable by assessing the level of congruence linked to both the sponsor and the sponsored entity (sponsee).

This research performed an experiment involving three different sporting activities where the level of congruence was perceived in a different way according to the different attributes of sponsorship message. Electroencephalograms were employed in order to measure reaction times when recognizing and identifying the level of congruence of sponsorship messages. The rate of successful understanding and identification of these sponsorship messages was also measured with this tool.

Incongruent, misfit messages are processed and encoded with a higher level of attention as opposed to the information which is reliable and consistent with prior expectations (congruent pairings). This means that subjects find fit, congruent messages more difficult to identify; in this case the information is poorly encoded and often misunderstood. In relation to attention congruity, this research found no differences across the different sporting activities which were examined.

This research proves that neuroscientific methods can be useful to assess the performance of sponsorship as an alternative to traditional techniques. In addition, this research contributes to the existing debate in the literature regarding the disagreeing results on the actual effectiveness of sponsoring congruent perceived events involving congruent perceived sports teams.

This paper is pioneering in the measurement of sponsorship performance through the use of electroencephalograms. Also, the level of attention is considered as a performance indicator.

The purpose of this paper is to assess the influences and efficiency of a sports sponsorship in an online brand community.

The study was conducted through interviews with 609 social network users of a Spanish first league soccer team. The partial least squares (PLS) methodology was applied with a posteriori segmentation (PLS prediction-oriented segmentation (POS)).

The attitude toward the sponsor helps to assess the efficiency of sponsorships between companies. This variable is particularly relevant for evaluating sponsorship efficiency in online brand communities. Improving trust and assessing the sense of membership directly improves attitudes toward the team and the sponsored brands. The attitude toward the sponsor has a direct and positive impact on the purchase intentions. The use of a posteriori segmentation with the PLS–POS technique helps discriminate between groups.

Among the limitations encountered, further study would require using a sample of various sports disciplines and cultures.

Specific actions and communication strategies are defined for each segment and in general to adapt communication strategies that improve identification with virtual brand communities. The study has revealed involvement-related differences resulting from the impact that engagement with the sponsored team may have on the assessed relationships.

The study of the effects of sponsorship and the use of a posteriori variables user segmentation in an online brand community are used.

To analyse the degree to which elite student athletes acquire different soft skills (resilience, creativity, proactivity and problem solving) and the role they play in their perceived employability.

The study assessed 163 elite Spanish student athletes. A validated survey to measure perceived employability and the degree of acquisition of soft skills was employed. Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) was used to analyse the data.

Students and athletes perceived a high degree of development of these skills and employability. Six solutions accounting for 64% of the cases were identified for achieving high employability levels. Three profiles emphasised combinations of elevated resilience with either creativity or problem-solving skills. Education and competition levels differed depending on the skill combination. Identifying and promoting the transferability of student athletes’ sports skills to the labour market was important for enhancing their employability. Collaboration with academic institutions and increased awareness of social media can facilitate the successful integration of elite athletes into the labour market.

The development and analysis of soft skills in the context of sports provide a foundation for future research in the field of athlete employability. This paper provides important information for academic institutions, through a novel method in the field, on the development and transfer of student-athlete soft skills from sports to the labour market.

This study explores the effect of video assistant referee (VAR) sponsorship on spectator response and compares it with advertising and conventional sponsorship.

An experiment with 809 subjects is conducted by analyzing 20 one-minute video clip stimuli from a Premier League soccer game divided into four formats: two formats of VAR sponsorship, advertising, and conventional sponsorship.

The results show that the indicators of recall, credibility, and perceived congruence improve when the VAR sponsorship format is used.

This is the first manuscript to examine the effectiveness of a new type of sponsorship: VAR sponsorship. This manuscript provides metrics that will guide practitioners on whether to use this type of sponsorship.

The sport sector is a very competitive and dynamic industry, son intrapreneurial employees are needed. However, although entrepreneurial intentions in sport sciences students have been studied, less is known about intrapreneurial intentions. It is, therefore, the purpose of this paper to validate a scale to measure the intrapreneurial intentions of sports science students from two different countries.

A sample of 304 final-year students from the sport sector of two different countries (Spain and Lithuania) was analyzed. First, an exploratory factorial analysis of the two samples was performed separately, and then a confirmatory factorial analysis was carried out to performed. Finally, in order to check the invariance of the measuring instrument, a multi-group analysis was performed with the constraints of all factors variances and all factors loading.

The entrepreneurial intentions scale works well both in its English version in the Lithuanian sports students’ and in its Spanish version with the university sports students from Spain. Therefore, it can be said that there is a metric invariance. However, the scale presents better fit indexes, reliability and validity in its English version. Lithuanian sports students scored significantly higher on the risk-taking dimension than Spanish students.

The scale has only been validated with final-year sport science students from two countries. It is necessary to test this scale with a larger sample of students from different fields and countries.

This scale can be used in both in Spanish and English versions to detect potential entrepreneurs in the sports sector, so it can help universities and employers to detect future intraentrepreneurs in the sports sector.

Social implication of this paper is the detection of potential entrepreneurs who can improve economic, social or sports performance in organizations or sports companies.

A new tool to detect the potential sport intrapreneurs in university students has been created. Moreover, a cross-cultural validation of the intrapreneurial intentions scale (in English and Spanish version) with sport sciences students from two different countries has been performed.

This paper investigates the influence of firms' communication in terms of family firm identity and country-of-origin on consumer response.

A self-supplied online experiment in Chile and Spain is employed using as dependent variables brand trust and intention to buy. The experiment includes the following factors: family firm identity (family vs non-family), country of origin (national vs foreign) and as a manipulation check (type of product: hedonic vs utilitarian).

The results indicate that communicating the family firm identity increases brand trust and purchase intention. Consumers show higher scores on trust and purchase intention when exposed to national country of origin products. The effect of the variability on the dependent variables is greater when the family firm identity is communicated. Trust and purchase intention are different in Chilean and Spanish consumers when the family firm identity is combined with a national country of origin cue.

This article contributes to family business theory by exploring how to capitalize on the family firm identity component in brand communication. It also contributes to the theory of corporate brand identity by proposing a communication model oriented toward consumer behavior. It also examines firms' communication (family firm identity and country-of-origin) on consumer.

The purpose of this paper is to understand how the nationality and the sport education system could affect the entrepreneurial intentions (EI) of undergraduate sport science students in two different countries.

A total of 249 undergraduate sport sciences (SS) students from Spain and Lithuania were analysed. The EI questioner questionnaire by Liñán and Chen (2009) was used to compile the data during the 2016-2017 academic year.

There are significant differences between the sport science students of Spain and Lithuania. The Lithuanian students have significantly higher means in the variables of EI, perceived behaviour control and professional attraction. Moreover, the variables that predict EI are different, and certain path coefficients of the variables are also significantly different.

The sample originates from one university in each country; therefore, these results may not be generalisable to the entire population.

The SS degrees in Lithuania and Spain should follow different educational policies with the objective of fostering EI and increasing the number of entrepreneurs.

Creating adequate educational policies to foster entrepreneurship in sports across countries could improve the number of entrepreneurs in the sports sectors; thus, the youth unemployment rate will decrease.

There has been no previous research that analyses the EI of sport science students across contexts through the theory of planned behaviour. Moreover, there are no studies that compare the EI of university students between Spain (Western Europe) and Lithuania (Eastern Europe).