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By using Inductively Coupled Plasma‐Mass Spectrometry (ICP‐MS) multi‐element analysis was performed on six toxic and one non‐toxic cyanobacteria and waste water. A method was developed using a single standard together with one SRM allowing multi‐element screening. This technique simplifies the calibration procedure and allows exploration of unforeseen elements in the mass spectrum in a couple of minutes. In this investigation, reports the concentration of Mn, Cu, Zn, Rb, Sr, Cd, Ba, La, Pb and U in the cyanobacteria. High concentration of Mn was observed in Microcystis viridis. In the mass spectrum of the waste water from the cleaning plant in Starogard, Poland, it was observed that the concentration of Pb in water was higher after seven days than 120 days.

THE breakdown of any kind of machinery always causes additional expense, not only because repairs are costly, but also because of the loss of operating time and production. Bearings are a particularly critical component and their serviceability is usually essential for the operation of any machine into which they are fitted. Thus it is important that bearing damage should be detected early enough to replace the bearing during a scheduled servicing period, and that unscheduled servicing of the machine should be prevented. This is particularly so where safety is a factor, as in aircraft engines, and certain parts of the process industries.

The purpose of this paper is to introduce a novel computational method to evaluate damage accumulation in a solder joint of an electronic package, when exposed to operating temperature environment. A procedure to implement the method is suggested, and a discussion of the method and its possible applications is provided in the paper.

Methodologically, interpolated response surfaces based on specially designed finite element (FE) simulation runs, are employed to compute a damage metric at regular time intervals of an operating temperature profile. The developed method has been evaluated on a finite-element model of a lead-free PBGA256 package, and accumulated creep strain energy density has been chosen as damage metric.

The method has proven to be two orders of magnitude more computationally efficient compared to FE simulation. A general agreement within 3 percent has been found between the results predicted with the new method, and FE simulations when tested on a number of temperature profiles from an avionic application. The solder joint temperature ranges between +25 and +75°C.

The method can be implemented as part of reliability assessment of electronic packages in the design phase.

The method enables increased accuracy in thermal fatigue life prediction of solder joints. Combined with other failure mechanisms, it may contribute to the accuracy of reliability assessment of electronic packages.

This chapter brings new knowledge on the effects of transformation in metropolitan and urban ruralities, as well as focus on social sustainability in these localities. The case study Sundom, Vaasa, Finland, highlights areas under pressure of transformation. ‘Metropolitan ruralities’ is used here as an umbrella concept, subdivided into metropolitan ruralities and smaller (non-metropolitan) urban ruralities. Qualitative and quantitative research methods are combined in a triangular study. An octagon figure (Fig. 4), including the main variables of the triangular study, is configured, to visualize different variables as a whole. The statistical material is more limited in urban ruralities – for example fewer property trades, less inhabitants and fewer voters – which make these case studies more vulnerable for the impact of extremes. The core of the chapter is to study how and if current global trends in metropolitan ruralities are visible in localities further down the urban scale. A stricter rural gentrification is expected in metropolitan ruralities than in urban ruralities, as the Sundom case exemplifies transformation with mild gentrification. Both metropolitan and urban ruralities are considered ‘breeding grounds’ for new rurban identities, with variations on an urban-rural scale. Metropolitan ruralities are expected to attract more exurbanite migrants, and urban ruralities attract more ‘exruralite’ migrants. This chapter also outlines some practical and social implications, argues for strengthening social sustainability in metropolitan ruralities and puts some much needed focus on transformation in metropolitan as well as non-metropolitan urban ruralities.

Fragile states (FS) are often neglected and categorized as “aid orphans”. In extreme circumstances, they are loaded with aid beyond their absorptive capacity. However, whether they receive little or too much, there is a compelling imperative to coordinate aid aimed at capacity development effectively. In an ever shrinking pot of funds from donors mainly due to the current global economic downturn, it is extremely important to coordinate and harmonise aid delivery. FS cannot afford to waste any money trapped under rubble of multi‐donor aid bureaucracy. Due to the multidimensional nature of fragility, we draw on case studies and interdisciplinary insights from Authority‐Legitimacy‐Capacity (ALC), Country Development Framework (CDF) and other models and frameworks of donor coordination. A number of asymmetries (e.g. technical, cultural and, financial) between donors and recipients need to be addressed. Donors can harmonise their respective Africa strategies reports and give priority to infrastructure instead of focusing exclusively on the social agenda as in the past. FS should fight the local culture of corruption, avoid fungibility, protect vulnerable groups in society, focus on reintegration as well as demobilizing ex‐combatants with employment provisions. Donors should not give mixed signals to recipients and need to be flexible in their operational procedures. Finally, we discuss the implications of key emerging issues that threaten or facilitate sustainable reconstruction, development and poverty reduction in post‐conflict environments.