Gigi Lam, Yuruo Yan and Edward Jow-Ching Tu
Hong Kong entered an ultra-low fertility regime nearly two decades ago (Census and Statistics Department, 2013). The causes of ultra-low fertility in Hong Kong are the same as…
Abstract
Purpose
Hong Kong entered an ultra-low fertility regime nearly two decades ago (Census and Statistics Department, 2013). The causes of ultra-low fertility in Hong Kong are the same as those in other developed economies (Tu and Lam, 2009). The phenomenon, in most of the western world and East Asian societies, is attributed to the incongruence between individual-oriented and family-oriented institutions (McDonald, 2000), or simply role incompatibility between work and motherhood (Stycos and Weller, 1967). One viable solution to alleviate role incompatibility is to introduce family-work reconciliation policies, including maternal and paternal leaves, subsidized child care and health care and work facilities that allow for breastfeeding (Lappegard, 2010). The purpose of this paper is to assess the family-friendly measures for enhancing fertility.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper analyzes the current demographic conundrum and makes recommendations.
Findings
Subsidized child care is an effective measure if it satisfies the five main criteria, namely, availability, accessibility, acceptability, cost, and quality, suggested by Rindfuss et al. (2003). Other family-friendly measures are inadequate in absolute terms and inferior to those of Asian countries such as Japan, Singapore, and South Korea (Ministry of Manpower, 2014; OECD, 2013). The possibility of shifting away from the ultra-low fertility regime remains doubtful, especially because low fertility is a combined effect of an increasing prevalence of single older women (Census and Statistics Department, 2014), a shift of the utility function of children toward other consumable goods (Inglehart, 1982) and a desire for achieving upward intragenerational and intergenerational social mobility (Ariès, 1980).
Practical implications
Since Hong Kong still subsides in the regime of the lowest-low fertility, an evaluation of the related family-friendly measures will provide constructive insights to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region Government how to provide incentives to citizens to consider making childbearing decisions.
Originality/value
Because the introduction of family-friendly measures and gender ideologies are intractably linked (Brewster and Rindfuss, 2000), Hong Kong stays in the middle of nations of families and nations of individuals, influenced by western ideas and traditional family values. It is hence worthwhile to examine the effectiveness of different family-friendly measures.
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Edward Jow-Ching Tu, Yuruo Yan and Jiaying Zhao
The purpose of this paper is to focus on the issue and the reasons why fertility patterns in many industrialized and post-industrialized societies decline so rapidly, primarily in…
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to focus on the issue and the reasons why fertility patterns in many industrialized and post-industrialized societies decline so rapidly, primarily in newly industrialized countries, particularly in East Asia, and especially after the countries have adopted the capitalist and market economy as the preferred approach to improve the lives of their population.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors discuss gender equality and the relationship between fertility and female labor force participation in industrialized and post-industrialized countries, in the context of role incompatibility, mainly for women and the level of the strength and rigidity of family- and gender-role norms/attitudes that affect the behaviors of men and women.
Findings
The existing family-related policies and programs which have reduced the role conflict and incompatibility experienced by working mothers are reviewed and discussed under national orientations toward the resolution of work–family conflict since they could affect the relevance, acceptance, significance and effectiveness of policies being developed and approved to carry on under institutional context within a nation.
Originality/value
Specific strategies and policies to reduce role incompatibility and childcare arrangements and their costs are discussed, especially for East Asian nations.
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Gigi Lam and Edward Jow-Ching Tu
Hong Kong is considered to be an aging population because of the ultralow fertility rates and long life expectancy of its population. A promising solution to remedy this age…
Abstract
Purpose
Hong Kong is considered to be an aging population because of the ultralow fertility rates and long life expectancy of its population. A promising solution to remedy this age imbalance is to recruit young people from outside Hong Kong. The inflow of Type II babies (i.e. babies born of Mainland Chinese women whose spouses are not Hong Kong citizens) has created an abundance of them within the young population. The paper aims to discuss this issue.
Design/methodology/approach
These controversies have been evaluated being mindful of the operation of a free economy in Hong Kong and the relevance of upholding the rule of law (Wong, 2012).
Findings
Wong’s (2012) recommendations to endow the Hong Kong Government with the authority to approve applications from a one-way permit system and to separate the right of residency of Type II babies from their entitlement to welfare services have also been summarized.
Originality/value
The inflow of Type II babies, however, has also generated public controversy concerning the intensifying competition for both public and private hospital services between Hong Kong residents and Mainlanders. This controversy has given rise to some questioning of whether a reinterpretation of the law is warranted to deny residency to Type II babies whose parents are not Hong Kong residents (Wong, 2012).
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Gigi Lam and Edward Jow-Ching Tu
The aging crisis in Hong Kong is unique in that it was caused by several waves of immigration and emigration, coupled with inadequate investment in tertiary education (Wong…
Abstract
Purpose
The aging crisis in Hong Kong is unique in that it was caused by several waves of immigration and emigration, coupled with inadequate investment in tertiary education (Wong, 2013b). The purpose of this paper is to study the causes and outcomes of the Hong Kong aging crisis and, where appropriate, advise on mitigation strategies.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper analyzes the current demographic predicament and makes recommendations.
Findings
A viable method for alleviating this demographic problem is to introduce various immigration schemes; however, these have been rendered futile because of a lack of infrastructure necessary for attracting immigrants and mitigating the protectionism that occurs among local workers and in trade unions in Hong Kong. A purely open and proactive immigration policy should involve prioritizing the admission of professionals and laborers across pillar industries and areas where technical skills are in short supply, as well as setting a daily immigration quota of 50 to recruit professionals with university degrees from abroad (Wong, 2013a). A comprehensive immigration policy should also be complemented by encouraging Hong Kong residents who work overseas to return (Wong, 2013a).
Originality/value
The paper analyzes the demographic predicament of labor shrinkage in Hong Kong and summarizes the recommendations for attracting talent and professionals from abroad.
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– The purpose of this paper is to examine the impacts of off-farm labor employments on household land rental behavior in rural China.
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to examine the impacts of off-farm labor employments on household land rental behavior in rural China.
Design/methodology/approach
IV-Probit and IV-Tobit model are used to identify the estimate of interest.
Findings
The results indicate that households with more members participating in either migration or local off-farm work are more/less likely to rent out/in land. Moreover, the effect of migration on household land rental behavior is much larger than the effect of local off-farm work.
Practical implications
These results suggest that ensuring benefits of migrants in urban cities can automatically promote household land rental behavior in rural China.
Originality/value
The authors provide a rigorous and careful empirical analysis on the effect of off-farm employment on household land rental behavior and pay special attention to the endogeneity issue tackled using separable instruments.
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The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relative impacts of full-scale land reallocation (FLR) and partial-scale land reallocation (PLR) on household land rental behavior in…
Abstract
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the relative impacts of full-scale land reallocation (FLR) and partial-scale land reallocation (PLR) on household land rental behavior in rural China.
Design/methodology/approach
Probit model, Tobit model and Semi-parametric model are used to provide empirical evidences.
Findings
Drawing upon an unique farm survey in 2003, the authors find that in rural China, FLR is more likely to follow egalitarian rule and PLR takes productivity of households into consideration. Econometric analysis provides two main findings. First, FLR has positive effect on household land rental behavior, possibly because egalitarian FLR creates a mismatch between household agricultural ability and land size and after FLR households have to participate in land rental market to adjust the mismatch. Second, PLR has negative effect on household land rental behavior which supports that land reallocation and land rental market are substitutes (Brandt et al., 2004).
Originality/value
The main contribution of this study is to show that FLR and PLR in rural China are motivated by two different rationales (i.e. FLR by egalitarian concerns and PLR by efficiency concerns).
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Since 1974, Japan's total fertility rate has been constantly below replacement level. The purpose of this paper is to focus on Japan's low fertility issue and countermeasures that…
Abstract
Purpose
Since 1974, Japan's total fertility rate has been constantly below replacement level. The purpose of this paper is to focus on Japan's low fertility issue and countermeasures that were adopted, in order to explore the reasons why the countermeasures were unable to solve the problem?
Design/methodology/approach
The paper analyzes both the historical changes and the current situation of Japan's countermeasures. It also focuses on how in Japan marriage behavior and couples' fertility behavior changed during the implementation of the countermeasures from both objective and subjective perspectives. Based on results of the analysis, the paper explores the inherent problems regarding the countermeasures.
Findings
The paper shows that there is no sign that Japan's low fertility could be overcome, and puts forward three problems regarding the countermeasures. The paper suggests paying greater attention to the contradictions in the current policies and to go beyond the field of family policy and population policy to consider the following questions from a more macro perspective: (1) how to make fertility more desirable and meaningful and (2) how to encourage the related social systems to promote people's spontaneity both in marriage and childbearing.
Originality/value
The paper uses the latest data and focuses on analyzing the countermeasures from a more macro perspective rather than discussing specific problems of the countermeasures. Based on both objective data and subjective views and, given the characteristics of Japanese society, the paper explores in depth the problems regarding the countermeasures. By improving empirical knowledge, the paper seeks to contribute more generally to low fertility countries' “fertility revival”.