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The purpose of this paper is to describe the development of simulation tools dedicated to eddy current non destructive testing (ECNDT) on planar structures implying planar defects. Two integral approaches using the Green dyadic formalism are considered.

The surface integral model (SIM) is dedicated to ideal cracks, whereas the volume integral method is adapted to general volumetric defects.

The authors observed that SIM provides satisfactory results, except in some critical transmitting/receiving (T/R) configurations. This led us to propose a hybrid method based on the combination of the two previous ones.

This method enables to simulate ECNDT on planar structures implying defects with a small opening using T/R probes.

A numerical model dedicated to external eddy current inspection of tubes has been developed using the volume integral method (VIM). The purpose of this paper is to suggest new discretization schemes based on non‐uniform B‐splines for the solution of the state equation with the method of moments (MoM).

VIM is a semi‐analytical approach providing fast and accurate results for the simulation of eddy current testing (ECT) of pieces with canonical geometries. The state equation derived with this formalism is solved using the Galerkin variant of the well‐known MoM.

This paper shows that an accuracy improvement is achieved in MoM by using B‐splines with degree 1 or 2 as projection functions in MoM instead of pulse functions. Moreover, comparisons between simulation results show that, for all ECT configurations tested, the use of degree 1 B‐splines is sufficient to get this improvement.

The use of B‐splines functions has already been proposed for MoM in the literature, but not in the framework of the Galerkin variant of MoM. This paper also shows quantitative comparisons between experiment and simulation as well as a study of the minimal degree required to get an accuracy improvement in MoM.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the origins and the business model of department stores in Mexico between 1891 and 1910.

Primary and secondary source material support an historical and comparative study of retailing and marketing evolution in a market on the global periphery.

This paper finds that Mexico's vanguard position in establishing the first purpose‐built department stores in Latin America is closely linked to the strong presence of an immigrant entrepreneurial class from the Barcelonnette region of France in the retailing and textile manufacturing sectors. Mexican department stores followed Parisian models, policies, and innovations closely, yet accommodated local customs and conditions. The stores served as showcases for the success of the national government's economic and cultural modernization program and as cultural primers for Mexican consumers.

Scholarly work on department stores, consumerism, and the influential French community in Mexico is extremely limited, especially so in English. This is the first work that brings these together and analyzes them within – and in relation to – the context of Mexico's rapid modernization during the era of President Porfirio Díaz from 1876 to 1911. It also undermines the notion that the USA is the first and most influential foreign influence on modern Mexican consumer culture.