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LABORATORY WORK has always been considered to be an essential and integral part of an electrical engineering course, and has in recent years received more and more attention. Colleges proudly display their well equipped laboratories; lecturers spend a very large amount of their time planning and developing laboratory experiments; students spend appreciable time in the laboratory and many more hours writing reports on experiments.

President Bill Clinton has had many opponents and enemies, most of whom come from the political right wing. Clinton supporters contend that these opponents, throughout the Clinton presidency, systematically have sought to undermine this president with the goal of bringing down his presidency and running him out of office; and that they have sought non‐electoral means to remove him from office, including Travelgate, the death of Deputy White House Counsel Vincent Foster, the Filegate controversy, and the Monica Lewinsky matter. This bibliography identifies these and other means by presenting citations about these individuals and organizations that have opposed Clinton. The bibliography is divided into five sections: General; “The conspiracy stream of conspiracy commerce”, a White House‐produced “report” presenting its view of a right‐wing conspiracy against the Clinton presidency; Funding; Conservative organizations; and Publishing/media. Many of the annotations note the links among these key players.

Evaluates changes in the welfare system in Sweden, the UK and the USA over a decade, basing arguments on the divergence of economic globalization and domestic forces. Presents brief economic snapshots of each country, stating quite categorically that the welfare state is an impediment to capitalist profit‐making, hence all three nations have retrenched welfare systems in the hope of remaining globally economically competitive. Lays the responsibility for retrenchment firmly at the door of conservative political parties. Takes into account public opinion, national institutional structures, multiculturalism and class issues. Explores domestic structures of accumulation (DSA) and refers to changes in the international economy, particularly the Bretton Woods system (Pax Americana), and notes how the economic health of nations mirrors that of the US. Investigates the roles of multinationals and direct foreign investment in the global economy, returning to how economic policy affects the welfare state. Points out the changes made to the welfare state through privatization, decentralization and modification of public sector financing. Concludes that the main result has been an increase in earnings inequality and poverty.

The total number of samples analysed in 1911 was 103,221, an increase of 2,472 samples over the number for the previous year. The principal increases were the following: Milk, 2,954; flour, 405; bread, 291; and spirits, 255. The principal decreases occurred in lard, 973; cheese, 285; and margarine, 208.

After the end of the Napoleonic War, few issues of public policy dominated discussions in England as fervently as the issue of currency and the national debt. A time of civil unrest and social radicalisation, the circulation of ideas and pamphlets was prolific. The difficulties of post-war reconstruction sparked a long debate on issues of monetary reform and repayment of the national debt. The growth of national debt increased the size of the financial market and had important consequences for a changing class dynamic in domestic political affairs. The distributional aspects of the conflict were present, as was the satirical mockery of mishandling of public affairs. In much of the subsequent scholarship the organisation of taxation and expenditure, and the financial system and the issue of currency have been analysed as separate. This chapter brings them together. In particular, it focuses on Ricardo’s monetary thought and his views on public finance and contextualises them in light of his contemporaries.

Numerous problems have arisen in the application of freezing methods to the various types of food products. One problem is concerned with the determination of the direct effects of low temperatures upon the food itself and another problem is to determine the effects of low temperatures upon other factors which may in turn affect the quality of the food. We are especially interested in knowing the exact effects of freezing and other low temperatures upon the micro‐organisms associated with foods. Bacteria constitute the most significant group of micro‐organisms affecting the sanitation and keeping qualities of foods. Those bringing about the decomposition of food products, while they are many and vary greatly, depending upon the nature of the food, are chiefly organisms from the air, water and soil. The types of bacteria found in foods vary greatly in their action on the food and also in reaction or response to varying temperature conditions. The action of micro‐organisms on foods of high carbohydrate content results in fermentations, while the action of the micro‐organisms on foods of high protein content will result, chiefly, in putrefactive changes. The former type of change usually occurs at a more rapid rate, when conditions are favourable, but the latter change usually results in a more undesirable condition of the food. While certain types of bacteria grow best at temperatures well above human body temperatures and others even as low as the freezing point of water, a large majority of those found in foods and the ones normally responsible for the detrimental changes in foods, are active only between 50° and 100° F. It is this latter group which is most implicated in food spoilage and it is significant that this group will be most effectively suppressed by low temperatures. Bacteria are much less affected by low than by high temperatures. Cold alone does not kill most types of bacteria, but slows down their activities to such an extent that they multiply very slowly, if at all. Many bacteria will die off, however, when held at a temperature below that which permits growth and reproduction. Bacteria, generally speaking, will be more easily killed when frozen in pure water than when frozen in foods containing albuminous matter and fats. There are a few bacteria of the cold‐loving type, which may actually multiply and cause slow decomposition at temperatures of 0° C. or less, if substances in solution are present to depress the crystallising point of water. Cold not only retards the growth of bacteria by the direct physiological effect of slowing down the rate of metabolism, but also depresses bacterial activity through its effect on their water and food supplies. Bacteria cannot grow and multiply in a completely frozen or crystallised medium, since they are by nature aquatic and are unable to carry on their normal activities except in a liquid medium. There is no evidence that bacteria maintain a body temperature which would make water available from a completely frozen medium. Bacteria may only utilise food when it is in soluble form, and thus capable of diffusion through their semipermeable cell membranes. When the temperature is sufficiently low to cause the crystallisation of most of the water, the remaining constituents become relatively more concentrated and this will further suppress the activity of the bacterial cells by affecting their osmotic pressures. These effects are very similar to those of partial desiccation or drying. In the course of experimentation some very striking examples of bacterial resistance to low temperatures have been reported. Lactobacillus and aerobacter have been reported to survive in peas stored at −10° C. for two years; whilst bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas were reported to increase in numbers when stored at −4° C. In general it may be said that practically all pathogenic bacteria likely to be found in foods will die off rather rapidly at low temperatures. However, this should not be interpreted to mean that infected foods can be made safe by low temperatures alone. Among the disease producing bacteria transmitted through foods, those of special significance include the organisms and toxins of botulism, typhoid fever, the several organisms of food poisoning called ptomaine poisoning, belonging to the Salmonella group (Salmonella enteritidis, etc.), and various organisms causing infections of the general nature of dysenteries or summer complaints of infants and adults. Frozen foods present no greater threat of botulism than foods preserved by other methods, yet it has been shown that Clostridium botulinum spores may survive freezing at −16° C. for as long as 14 months. The vegetables when thawed become toxic in from three to six days. Experiments have shown that Clostridium botulinum in foods preserved by “quick freezing” and subsequent storage at temperatures below 10° C., show no toxin production for at least 30 days. The lower the temperature of storage the greater the protection against botulism. All foods in which Clostridium botulinum might be present, and which have not been thoroughly heated, should be refrigerated at or near the freezing point. All foods which may harbour the botulism organisms or toxins should be selected with special care, before they are frozen, and care should be taken to see that they are kept frozen until used by the customer. Frozen vegetables should be used immediately after thawing. Thawing and refreezing is always objectionable since such a practice leads to loss of quality, and since bacterial growth and activity may occur during the period of thawing. While the typhoid organisms (Eberthella typhosa) shows considerable variation in resistance to low temperatures, it has been shown that about 99 per cent. will be killed immediately by freezing. Temperatures below freezing apparently have little more effect than the freezing point temperature. Small numbers of the Salmonella and similar organisms of the food poisoning groups may survive in frozen foods for periods of several weeks. It has been shown, however, that no significant growth of activity of these organisms will occur if the foods are refrigerated at 5° C. (41° F.) or less. Moulds and yeasts are of relatively little importance in frozen foods, both from the standpoint of sanitation and food spoilage. While low temperatures will materially retard the rate of enzymatic changes within food products, there is evidence that such changes continue to take place in frozen foods, even considerably below the freezing point. These changes probably account, in part, for the fact that frozen foods once thawed, will decompose more rapidly than foods which have not been frozen.