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The first Poor Laws date back to the 16th century. One would have to go back to 1495 and 1531 to locate the first legislation (displaying above all a repressive character), in which vagabonds were punished, all public begging was outlawed and the poor were required to participate in public works. But an initial 1535 provision stipulated that the local authorities were required to provide for the subsistence of the sick poor. The laws of 1572, 1575, 1597 and 1601 (Tawney & Power, 1924, Vol. 2, pp. 328–329, 346–354) marked a decisive step towards the extension of assistance to the ‘deserving poor’ within the context of the parish. Throughout the whole of the 17th century, the coercive aspect continued to dominate. The law on place of residence (the Act of Settlement and Removal) of 1662 added new constraints to the old provisions attaching the poor to their respective parishes. The creation of workhouses beginning in the mid-17th century (via parliamentary decrees in 1647 and 1649) represented the most important stage in the establishment of these repressive measures. The objective was to make the poor more useful and less costly to society; the 18th century would see an increase in the number of workhouses, reaching a total of approximately 200 by the end of the century. Beginning in 1722, the parish authorities were able to create workhouses and conclude agreements with the central government for the upkeep of the poor; those who refused to participate in these institutions lost all rights to assistance.

The purpose of this paper is to critically review the core findings from recently published place‐based crime prevention research. The paper aims to critically evaluate the available evidence on the contribution of crime prevention through environmental design as a crime prevention strategy.

Large‐scale evaluations of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) are reviewed with a view to clarifying current knowledge on the evidence of crime prevention through environmental design.

The review concludes that there is a growing body of research that supports the assertion that crime prevention through environmental design is effective in reducing both crime and fear of crime in the community.

Although the paper may not review all the evaluations of CPTED, it nonetheless provides a detailed compilation and overview of the most significant research in the area, including an extensive and modern bibliography on the subject. Research implications will be the subject of a forthcoming paper.

CPTED is an increasingly fashionable approach and is being implemented on a global scale. Additionally, individual components such as territoriality, surveillance, maintenance, access control, activity support and target‐hardening are being widely deployed. However, the evidence currently available is inconclusive and much criticised, which effectively prevents widespread intervention and investment by central government. The paper details the difficulties associated with demonstrating the effectiveness of CPTED.

The paper concludes that although empirical proof has not been definitively demonstrated, there is a large and growing body of research, which supports the assertion that crime prevention through environmental design is a pragmatic and effective crime prevention tool. This review provides an extensive bibliography of contemporary crime prevention through environmental design and a follow‐up paper will discuss the future research priorities for it.

A general description of a continuous (‐valued) logic is given, basic operations of the logic are defined, and some problems and particulars of their solutions are discussed. First, we define algebra of continuous logic and enumerate its basic unary, binary and ternary functions. All laws of continuous logic are compared with laws of discrete binary logic. We discuss how to enumerate all functions of continuous logic with specified number of variables and how to represent the functions in a standard form. Procedures of minimization of continuous logical functions and their decomposition into the functions with less clarity are exploited. The procedures are compared with their counterparts from binary logic. We also tackle problems of analysis and synthesis of continuous logical functions, and show that the problem of synthesis may not have a solution. Basics of differential and integral calculus are applied to continuous valued logic. We demonstrate that any continuous logical function has the points where a derivative does not exist. At the end of the paper we briefly discuss an incompleteness problem of continuous logic, application of continuous logic in mathematics, engineering and economy, give examples, draw a perspective of further development and supply extensive bibliography of Russian works in the field.

The purpose of this paper is to describe the development, testing and scientific evaluation of a novel, load‐cell‐controlled reactive reconfigurable tooling (RRT) solution. This RRT not only addresses the underlying inherent problems with traditional reconfigurable tools but also potentially expands their use into the area of condition monitoring.

The paper covers the design intent and methodology. The construction and evaluation of both a simple prototype and a fully functional tool are described.

The tool was successfully demonstrated using friction stir welding (FSW) of fuselage panels as a demanding application and the full functionality of the tool was demonstrated. The condition and process monitoring system was also demonstrated and shown to be able to distinguish both between different types of weld and tool failure conditions.

Having successfully designed and tested the novel RRT system under the extreme conditions of FSW, it is apparent that there are many more applications and developments that this system could be used for. The same requirements for accurate control of geometry exist in processes such as water jet cutting, trimming and machining. However, there was not sufficient resource or time within the research programme to verify this. One disadvantage of the tool is the cost of the individual load cells and the associated charge amplifiers; however, this cost is offset by the opportunity to use them in a tool condition monitoring function as well.

The tool developed not only has the potential to provide cost benefits but also time reductions due to the elimination of the need to move large and heavy tools in and out of the FSW machine when part production runs are changed.

The originality of work described is the tool's ability to both adapt and monitor the component being held. This places it considerably beyond the state of the art in large‐scale industrial reconfigurable tooling. The research's value lies in applicability and demonstration for real production parts and processes.

The purpose of this paper is to provide a suitable linkage between a computational fluid dynamics code and a shape optimization code for the analysis of heat/fluid flow in forced convection channels normally used in the cooling of electronic equipment.

A parallel‐plate channel with a discrete array of five heat sources embedded in one plate with the other plate insulated constitutes the starting model. Using water as the coolant medium, the objective is to optimize the shape of the channel employing a computerized design loop. The two‐part optimization problem is constrained to allow only the unheated plate to deform, while maintaining the same inlet shape and observing a maximum pressure drop constraint.

First, the results for the linearly deformed unheated plate show significant decrease in the plate temperatures of the heated plate, with the maximum plate temperature occurring slightly upstream of the outlet. Second, when the unheated plate is allowed to deform nonlinearly, a parabolic‐like shaped plate is achieved where the maximum plate temperature is further reduced, with a corresponding intensification in the local heat transfer coefficient. The effectiveness of the computerized design loop is demonstrated in complete detail.

This article offers a simple, harmonious technique for optimizing the shape of forced convection channels subjected to pre‐set design constraints.

Estimates are developed of the major macroeconomic aggregates – wages, land rents, interest rates, prices, factor shares, sectoral shares in output and employment, and real wages – for England by decade between 1209 and 2008. The efficiency of the economy in the years 1209–2008 is also estimated. One finding is that the growth of real wages in the Industrial Revolution era and beyond was faster than the growth of output per person. Indeed until recently the greatest recipient of modern growth in England has been unskilled workers. The data also create a number of puzzles, the principal one being the very high levels of output and efficiency estimated for England in the medieval era. These data are thus inconsistent with the general notion that there was a period of Smithian growth between 1300 and 1800 which preceded the Industrial Revolution, as expressed in such recent works as De Vries (2008).