Search results

The spirits industry is a major economic contributor worldwide, often requiring years of maturation in barrels that is associated with significant release of ethanol into the surrounding environment. This provides carbon nutrition for colonisation of black fungal growths, one type being Baudoinia compniacensis, or Whisky Black. Although growth is localised in production areas, numerous sites exist globally, and this paper's purpose is to investigate the extent and implications of colonisation.

The paper presents and discusses the results of a visual survey of the area surrounding a site where whisky is maturing in nearby bonded warehouses. The evaluation considers radial zoning distance from the ethanol source and material substrate types and surface textures. Classical key stages of Building Pathology, namely manifestation, diagnosis, prognosis and therapy, are considered.

Key findings are that the colonisation of the fungus is non-uniform and dependent on the substrate building material. Additionally, rougher-textured building materials displayed heavier levels of fungal manifestation than smooth materials. Aspects such as distance, wind direction and moisture are considered relative to the extent and level of fungal growth.

This investigation provides the first assessment of the extent and nature of the fungal growth in properties built in surrounding areas to bonded warehouses. Such information can facilitate open dialogue between stakeholders that recognise the aspirations of values of corporate social responsibility, whilst balancing the economic importance of distilling with recognition of the fungus's impact on property values and appropriate recurring remedial treatments.

Sustainability is well understood to encapsulate economic, environmental and societal parameters. The efficiency of maintenance interventions for historic buildings is no exception and also conforms to these broad factors. Recently, environmental considerations for masonry repair have become increasingly important and this work supports this growing area. The purpose of this paper is to give insight on how an option appraisal approach of “Green Maintenance” modelling for historic masonry buildings repair practically determine and ultimately substantiate the decision-making process using a calculation procedures of life cycle assessment, within delineated boundaries.

Calculation procedures of the model enables an assessment of embodied carbon that is expended from different stone masonry wall repair techniques and scenarios for historic masonry buildings during the maintenance phase.

It recognises the importance roles Green Maintenance model can play in reducing carbon emissions and underpins rational decision making for repair selection.

It must be emphasised that the calculation procedures presented here, is not confined to historic masonry buildings and can be applied to any repair types and building form. The decisions made as a result of the utilisation of this model practically support environmentally focused conservation decisions.

The implementation of the model highlights the efficacy of repairs that may be adopted.

The paper is a rigorous application and testing of the Green Maintenance model. The model relays the “true” carbon cost of repairs contextualised within the longevity of the materials and its embodied carbon that consequently allows rational appraisal of repair and maintenance options.

The purpose of this paper is to address the issue of perceptions of suitability of different materials for a repair. The use of highly cementitious materials in the repair of historic masonry is causing great concern due to their incompatibility with adjacent stone and the associated accelerated deterioration which results from their use. The relatively recent development of so‐called “restoration mortars” based on a “mix and go” application, combined with the enhanced weathering of stone in a changing climate, may be contributing to the use of “plastic” repair materials on stone across Scotland.

Following a literature review, case studies of repairs are presented to highlight the advantages and disadvantages of using such materials, and comparisons are made with the alternative options.

The case studies presented highlight the use of a number of different stone repair materials, sometimes in combination with stone replacement, representing functional and philosophical approaches to masonry repair. However, the research has also highlighted the increasing use of plastic repairs for large‐scale repair including façade rendering, which fail to incorporate these systematic and informed approaches, and can ultimately lead to failure of repairs.

An evaluation of the current standing of the materials, methods and the extent of this type of repair, is vital for the substantiation of further research, and to enhance the empirical knowledge of in‐use performance, longevity and failure. The increasing emergence of restoration mortars, and their manufacture and supply on an international scale, highlights the global impact and relevance of this research.

Deterioration in natural stone is associated with many decay mechanisms and often the inherent composition of the materials themselves. Sandstone varies considerably but they all require a cementing matrix to bind amongst others, the silica (SiO₂) particles together (Reading, 1989). In calcareous sandstones and limestones this binding matrix is principally calcium carbonate based (Muir, 2006; Reading, 1989; McMillan et al., 1999) in the form of calcite (CaCO₃). Friable sandstone substrates and stones suffering from “surface dissolution” or disaggregation (Muir, 2006; Smith et al., 1992) have been traditionally consolidated utilising a host of chemical compounds that had, in many cases negative effects on their long-term performance (Muir, 2006). A principle issue amongst many was moisture entrapment and irreversibility of the consolidants adopted. The paper aims to discuss these issues.

This paper investigates the effect of microbial induced calcite precipitation (MICP) as a natural treatment for the conservation of historic natural stone substrates. Sporosarcina pasteurii has been proven as a bacterium that can perform MICP effectively in extreme conditions making it the preferred bacterium for the MICP process within this study. Surface treatment experiments were analysed by measuring the mass increase and surface changes using scanning electron microscopy (SEM).

The surface treatments showed a noticeable mass increase and observable deposition when viewed using a SEM microscope. Bio cementation of loose sand particles was observed and the degree of cementation was determined using a Moh's hardness test.

Recommendations for further work to improve this study are: use an increased Sporosarcina pasteurii cell optical density which would provide a greater calcite output. Carry out a paired comparison initial surface absorption test (BS 1881: Part 208, 1996 or ASTM C 1585-04, 2004). To be carried out on untreated control and MICP samples which would determine the pore blocking effect and surface repair capability of the treated samples.

A method for obtaining optimal results in terms of surface treatment would involve reducing the time between mixing and application, this would require having the two reaction constituents mixed only seconds before use. Using a late mix spray application system has the potential to allow the two mixtures to combine in the spray nozzle whilst exiting the apparatus.

This paper investigates a safe, natural process for stone repair.

The techniques available for the repair of historic masonry structures are extremely wide ranging. The advantages and disadvantages of each type of repair can be evaluated in terms of cost, time and quality as with modern projects. It is however, important to realise that when repairs to historic buildings are selected they must conform to building conservation philosophy, or an ethical and principle based evaluation. The purpose of this paper (part 2 of 2) is to establish what is meant by principles in this context and wherever possible apply practical examples to illustrate these concepts.

Evaluative literature review of the principles encapsulated within building conservation philosophy utilising them to stimulate discussion on practical repair interventions.

It has been shown that the principles of building conservation philosophy must be considered prior to making decisions relating to masonry repair. These repairs have varying degrees of defensibility, and will ultimately lead to good or bad conservation approaches. This paper briefly discusses the principles, highlighting some of the issues that may be initially confusing to the practitioner.

The evaluation of building conservation philosophy for masonry repair, and more specifically the “principles” have been little studied. The importance of this cannot however be over stated, as far from being an esoteric concept it affects every practical repair. This work brings together the study of the philosophical and practical, enabling practitioners to better understand the ramifications of building conservation philosophy for their projects. It must however be emphasised that as with any aspect of philosophy, there is not necessarily a right or wrong answer, only higher levels of defence for the selected repairs.

The influence of flood conditions upon traditional cob construction is little understood. This paper aims to investigate the ability of cob materials to resist flood situations and documents basic failure mechanisms. This work also seeks to investigate the wettability characteristics of cob materials utilising environmental scanning electron microscopy.

This paper takes the form of a literature review and case study underpinning laboratory experiments.

Cob walls that are suitably compacted, straw reinforced and are composed and manufactured of the correct materials appear to have the ability to resist total failure when subjected to initial flood conditions, however, the duration to which these structures will remain intact has still to be ascertained, and testing is ongoing. A correlation appears to exist between the rate of cob material's compaction and the duration to which the structural integrity of the walls was retained when the samples were submerged in water. In addition, the use of straw reinforcing increased the duration to which the wall could be submerged before failure. Un‐reinforced cob walls that were submerged in simulated floodwaters, exhibited an undercutting pattern of deterioration prior to failure. The materials for cob construction exhibited both hydrophobic and hydrophilic characteristics. This would have an influence on the material's ability to saturate and dehydrate, and also have an impact on moisture transfer mechanisms. Unsaturated cob wall/samples developed surface tension between hydrophilic surfaces and this is believed by the authors to increase inter‐particle bond strength within the material by the suction effect.

This paper is believed to be the first preliminary investigation into the effect of flooding on cob structures. Additionally, it utilises environmental scanning electron microscopy to reveal information about the surface characteristics of the materials and uses wettability studies to assess the hydrophilic and hydrophobic nature of the aforementioned.

Graffiti, both ancient and contemporary, could be argued to be significant and therefore worthy of protection. Attaching value is, however, subjective with no specific method being solely utilised for evaluating these items. The purpose of this paper to help those who are attempting to evaluate the merit of graffiti to do so, by determining “cultural significance”, which is a widely adopted concept for attaching value to the historic built environment. The current Scottish system utilised to assess “cultural significance” is the Scottish Historic Environment Policy (SHEP) which shares many common features with other determinants of cultural significance in different countries. The SHEP document, as with other systems, could however be criticised for being insufficiently sensitive to enable the evaluation of historic graffiti due, in part, to the subjective nature of determination of aesthetic value.

A review of literature is followed by consideration of case studies taken from a variety of historical and geographical contexts. The majority of examples of graffiti included in this paper have been selected for their relative high profile, previous academic study, and breadth of geographic spread. This selection will hopefully enable a relatively comprehensive, rational assessment to be undertaken. That being said, one example has been integrated to reflect commonly occurring graffiti that is typical to all of the built environment.

The determination of aesthetic value is particularly problematic for the evaluator and the use of additional art‐based mechanisms such as “significant form”, “self expression” and “meaning” may aid this process. Regrettably, these determinants are also in themselves subjective, enhancing complexity of evaluation. Almost all graffiti could be said to have artistic merit, using the aforementioned determinants. However, whether it is “good” art is an all together different question. The evaluation of “good” art and graffiti would have traditionally been evaluated by experts. Today, determination of graffiti should be evaluated and value attached by broader society, community groups, and experts alike.

This research will assist those responsible for historic building conservation with the evaluation of whether graffiti is worthy of conservation.

The techniques available for the repair of historic masonry structures are extremely wide ranging. The advantages and disadvantages of each type of repair can be evaluated in terms of cost, time and quality as with modern projects. It is however, important to realise that when repairs to historic buildings are selected they must conform to building conservation philosophy, or an ethical and principle based evaluation. This paper (part 1 of 2) aims to establish what is meant by ethics in this context and wherever possible seeks to apply practical examples to these concepts.

The paper takes the form of an evaluative literature review of the ethics encapsulated within building conservation philosophy utilising them to stimulate discussion on practical repair interventions.

It is shown that ethical considerations are of prime importance for decisions relating to masonry repairs. These repairs have varying degrees of defensibility, and will ultimately lead to good or bad conservation approaches. The paper briefly discusses the ethics, highlighting some of the issues that may be initially confusing to the practitioner.

It must be emphasised that as with any aspect of philosophy, there is not necessarily a right or wrong answer, only higher levels of defence for the selected repairs.

The evaluation of building conservation philosophy and more specifically, ethical considerations for masonry repair has been little studied. The importance of this undervalued aspect of building conservation cannot be over emphasised and far from being an esoteric concept, it affects every practical repair. This paper brings together the study of the philosophical and practical, enabling practitioners to better understand the implications of building conservation philosophy on their projects.

It is well understood that maintenance is critical to the survival and in‐service use of any building. Despite recognition that the best way of protecting and maintaining historic buildings is to undertake a combination of proactive and reactive maintenance, it is rarely adopted or implemented, and when it is undertaken it often results in varying degrees of success. Maintenance theory currently exists, but fails to be realised in practical application and implementation. It is the purpose of this paper to ask why this failure is occurring.

The paper is composed of a critical review of existing literature, highlighting some of the major issues affecting maintenance implementation. It also reports the early stages of proposed research ongoing at Heriot‐Watt University.

Despite recognition in the literature of the need to maintain historic buildings, this review suggests that the ways in which maintenance is organised and financed often mitigates against its implementation. In addition, advice to owners of historic buildings could be improved and there is a shortage of skilled operatives.

Unless this situation is improved, much of our culturally significant buildings will be lost to future generations.

It is well recognised that Conservation Plan has attracted attention to the maintenance of historic buildings; despite diverse array of issues, particularly associated with “Green Maintenance” concept and methodology and sustainable repair approach. The theory of these three concepts currently exists, but fails to be realised in practical integration. The purpose of this paper to ask why this failure is occurring and how it influences sustainable historic environment.

The paper is composed of a critical review of existing literature and an argument built based on the concept of a Conservation Plan, “Green Maintenance” concept and methodology and sustainable repair approach for historic buildings.

Despite the need of maintenance of historic buildings, this review suggests that a Conservation Plan often mitigates against its own association with “Green Maintenance”. Conversely, this could be improved by transforming the integration to be more pronounced in achieving sustainable repair for historic buildings.

An integration of the concept of a Conservation Plan, “Green Maintenance” and sustainable repair approach could be utilised to form the basis of decision-making process for achieving sustainable historic environment.

An integration of Conservation Plan, “Green Maintenance” and sustainable repair approach will be positively welcomed as our society moves towards a low carbon economy and materials as well as “green” procurement.

Unless integration between of a Conservation Plan, “Green Maintenance” and sustainable repair is improved, much of our culturally significant historic buildings will not be repaired in sustainable ways and our future generation may lose their historic environment.