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This study aims to use a novel data set of 636 murderers sentenced to death in California to investigate homicide offenses that are committed but not prosecuted or officially solved, a concept known as the dark figure of crime.

Uaing appellate records from the Supreme Court of California, which contain extensive information about the offender’s background, criminal offense history and mental health diagnoses, it was revealed that one-third of the offenders in the sample have additional homicide offenses for which they likely bear responsibility, but were not prosecuted.

Most of these involve one or two additional homicides, though a wide range was observed spanning 0 to 93 additional victims. Those with a dark figure of murder and unsolved homicides had substantially more prior arrests, convictions and prison incarcerations and were higher in psychopathy, sexual sadism, homicidal ideation and gang involvement than offenders without a dark figure. Psychopathy and homicidal ideation were the most robust predictors of both the presence and magnitude of a dark figure of murder and unsolved homicides, whereas sexual sadism was inconsistently associated.

A disproportionate amount of the unsolved murders in the USA are likely perpetrated by the most pathological types of offenders, those with extensive antisocial careers and severe externalizing psychopathology.

The purpose of this paper is to begin to explore whether and how the use of detection avoidance (DA) by offenders leads to a so called “dark figure” of unsolved homicides that have been mis/unclassified.

Australian Coronial data and inquest findings are used to examine how DA impacts on determining homicide, and cases remaining unsolved.

Results show DA behaviours perpetrated by offenders may be catalysed by other challenges, and may lead to homicides being mis/unclassified and unsolved. Findings indicate there is a small dark figure of mis/unclassified homicides which eventually become known and investigated as homicides in Australia. The number of unsolved homicides may be greater than official data reveals, due to some cases remaining mis/unclassified.

Results are likely to underestimate the prevalence of mis/unclassified homicides due to the invisibility of cases and the difficulty establishing rules to include suspected but unproven homicides. The variable nature and impact of DA behaviours also limits results, along with jurisdictional differences in Coronial data.

This discussion explains DA behaviours impact on determining and investigating homicide and the necessity of future research.

Mis/unclassified homicides as unsolved homicides have not been discussed previously. This discussion is the first to conceptualise mis/unclassified homicides as a dark figure of unsolved cases, and the first to attempt to gauge the problem.

The purpose of this paper is to suggest two things: first, that the scientific and technological developments and increased regulation that have shaped homicide investigations in England and Wales over the last few decades have provided today’s investigators with opportunities not available to their predecessors, and play a key role in solving unsolved homicides. Second, however, the authors suggest that such developments have created new challenges for investigators, challenges that impede current investigations, potentially creating the future unsolved cases.

This paper draws on two qualitative studies that comprised over eight months of ethnographic research, observations, interviews with serving and retired homicide detectives and case file analysis.

The widespread changes to homicide investigations in England and Wales have been valuable in many respects, notably, they have allowed detectives to look back in time and bring longstanding unsolved cases to a close. However, change, although well intentioned, might actually be creating future cold cases as detectives endeavour to manage the volume of information now generated during investigations, fast evolving scientific and technological techniques and an increase in bureaucracy.

This study is helpful for: improving investigative practice; learning from change; reducing unsolved homicides vs a rise in new cold cases; and innovative and entrepreneurial investigators.

Utilising qualitative research, this paper contributes to the academic literature exploring homicide investigation in England and Wales, offering insight into the challenges facing detectives and the potential impact of these upon solving past and present homicide cases.

The purpose of this study is to explore the review mechanisms’ efficacy from the perspective of cold case reviewers. Live homicide review mechanisms at the 7- and 28-day stage of an inquiry seek to prevent the case becoming cold (or unsolved) by ensuring lines of inquiry have been suitably identified and progressed. There is also a requirement to ensure the investigation was not swayed by faulty decision-making or cognitive biases. However, the use of the review processes in preventing unsolved cases is unclear, and not subject to much academic discussion.

This exploratory study explores the review functions through the lens of cold case detectives, currently reviewing unsolved cases to identify progression opportunities. The study uses data from a seven-month, non-participatory observation period with a two-force collaborative cold case unit and 13 semi-structured interviews with cold case review officers. The observations and interviews were simultaneously analysed adhering to an inductive approach to Thematic Analysis.

The results show procedural guides (e.g. the Major Crime Investigation Manual) are important quality assurance mechanisms for review officers, helping ensure the appropriate and necessary lines of inquiry have been pursued. However, they were keen to emphasise the importance of intuition in progressing cases but felt continuously hindered by a lack of resources and large numbers of applicable cases. To the best of the authors’ knowledge this study is the first exploration of cold case detective’s experiences of the live review processes and how they may pose challenges in case progression for cognitive errors and biases. While the study has identified some challenges facing review officers in nine police forces across the UK, wider examination of policies, practices and mechanisms should be explored to develop the current procedural guidance (e.g. NPCC, 2021).

To the best of the authors’ knowledge this exploratory study is the first exploration of cold case detective’s experiences of the live review processes and how they may pose challenges in case progression for cognitive errors and biases. While the study has identified some challenges facing review officers in nine police forces across the UK, wider examination of policies, practices and mechanisms should be explored to develop the current procedural guidance (e.g. NPCC, 2021).

The purpose of this paper is to report a study of practitioner views on the 28-day homicide review process.

The research draws upon primary data from interviews with senior investigating officers (SIOs) engaged in homicide investigations and review officers tasked with reviewing homicides unsolved after 28 days.

The review process was perceived to be meeting the needs of the organization but adding little, or no direct value to SIOs. Despite this, there was agreement as to the potential value and necessity of the homicide review process. Issues such as the purpose and process of reviews were considered, with recommendations providing impetus for the Metropolitan Police Service (MPS) to review the use of reviewers commensurate with their expertise, the training and development of reviewers, and the aims, format and timing of a review.

The study involved the MPS, and its relevance to review processes elsewhere, whilst likely, is unproven. Further research could identify whether similar issues arise elsewhere, although the findings of this study could encourage other forces to undertake internal reviews of their own systems and processes to understand whether improvements could be made. Whilst over a third of the SIOs and Murder Investigation Team managers took part in the study, a fifth of the review officers were interviewed.

MPS should amend the objectives of a MCR to reflect the role they play in the prevention of miscarriages of justice. The MPS should conduct a skills analysis of existing staff. Reviewers should be appointed to cases within their sphere of expertise, and should all be qualified at Professionalising the Investigative Process (PIP) Level 3. The MPS should consider an arbitration process for contested review recommendations. The College of Policing should consider a PIP development programme for proactive SIOs. The College of Policing should review and support SIO continuing professional development opportunities within the MPS.

The findings are relevant to any police service currently undertaking 28-day reviews of unsolved homicide investigations.

The reviews of cold case homicides are infrequently referenced within either procedural guides or scholarly outputs. However, boundaries for the review are imperative to ascertain the most productive use of resources, aligned with the case’s chance of eventual resolution. The purpose of the study is to identify the boundaries established by police forces within England and Wales for their reviews of cold cases. Due to the lack of guidance, forces have created their own methods which may result in ineffective review processes and strategies. Therefore, this study sought to elucidate the boundaries of the review process through 13 semi-structured interviews with cold case detectives and a seven-month observation period (analysed simultaneously using an inductive Thematic Analysis), the following boundaries were identified before the review commences: the Terms of Reference (which provide a framework for the review based on live homicide review criteria), the identification of the review type (either a full or thematic review) and justification of the case’s prioritisation. This study provides initial evidence that there is an interconnectedness of procedures underpinning the reviews of cold cases, with the Terms of Reference dictating the type of review to be conducted, which is subsequently influenced by the case’s prioritisation. This study provides an important insight into the boundaries of reviews, and recognises the challenges for their implementation, attributed primarily to available resources and the number of cases that a force is responsible for. Important recommendations are proposed for the ongoing practice of cold case reviews to provide areas of evaluation and improved practice.

The reviews of cold case homicides are infrequently referenced within either procedural guides or scholarly outputs. However, boundaries for the review are imperative to ascertain the most productive use of resources, aligned with the case’s chance of eventual resolution. The purpose of the study is to identify the boundaries established by police forces within England and Wales for their reviews of cold cases. Due to the lack of guidance, forces have created their own methods which may result in ineffective review processes and strategies. Therefore, this study sought to elucidate the boundaries of the review process through 13 semi-structured interviews with cold case detectives and a seven-month observation period (analysed simultaneously using an inductive Thematic Analysis), the following boundaries were identified before the review commences: the Terms of Reference (which provide a framework for the review based on live homicide review criteria), the identification of the review type (either a full or thematic review) and justification of the case’s prioritisation. This study provides initial evidence that there is an interconnectedness of procedures underpinning the reviews of cold cases, with the Terms of Reference dictating the type of review to be conducted, which is subsequently influenced by the case’s prioritisation. This study provides an important insight into the boundaries of reviews, and recognises the challenges for their implementation, attributed primarily to available resources and the number of cases that a force is responsible for. Important recommendations are proposed for the ongoing practice of cold case reviews to provide areas of evaluation and improved practice.

The reviews of cold case homicides are infrequently referenced within either procedural guides or scholarly outputs. However, boundaries for the review are imperative to ascertain the most productive use of resources, aligned with the case’s chance of eventual resolution. The purpose of the study is to identify the boundaries established by police forces within England and Wales for their reviews of cold cases. Due to the lack of guidance, forces have created their own methods which may result in ineffective review processes and strategies. Therefore, this study sought to elucidate the boundaries of the review process through 13 semi-structured interviews with cold case detectives and a seven-month observation period (analysed simultaneously using an inductive Thematic Analysis), the following boundaries were identified before the review commences: the Terms of Reference (which provide a framework for the review based on live homicide review criteria), the identification of the review type (either a full or thematic review) and justification of the case’s prioritisation. This study provides initial evidence that there is an interconnectedness of procedures underpinning the reviews of cold cases, with the Terms of Reference dictating the type of review to be conducted, which is subsequently influenced by the case’s prioritisation. This study provides an important insight into the boundaries of reviews, and recognises the challenges for their implementation, attributed primarily to available resources and the number of cases that a force is responsible for. Important recommendations are proposed for the ongoing practice of cold case reviews to provide areas of evaluation and improved practice.

The reviews of cold case homicides are infrequently referenced within either procedural guides or scholarly outputs. However, boundaries for the review are imperative to ascertain the most productive use of resources, aligned with the case’s chance of eventual resolution. The purpose of the study is to identify the boundaries established by police forces within England and Wales for their reviews of cold cases. Due to the lack of guidance, forces have created their own methods which may result in ineffective review processes and strategies. Therefore, this study sought to elucidate the boundaries of the review process through 13 semi-structured interviews with cold case detectives and a seven-month observation period (analysed simultaneously using an inductive Thematic Analysis), the following boundaries were identified before the review commences: the Terms of Reference (which provide a framework for the review based on live homicide review criteria), the identification of the review type (either a full or thematic review) and justification of the case’s prioritisation. This study provides initial evidence that there is an interconnectedness of procedures underpinning the reviews of cold cases, with the Terms of Reference dictating the type of review to be conducted, which is subsequently influenced by the case’s prioritisation. This study provides an important insight into the boundaries of reviews, and recognises the challenges for their implementation, attributed primarily to available resources and the number of cases that a force is responsible for. Important recommendations are proposed for the ongoing practice of cold case reviews to provide areas of evaluation and improved practice.

The use of the media in live cases has been explored in terms of its use and value to an investigation. However, it is unclear as to whether engaging with the media in cold-case investigations results in a positive or negative reception, and what impact this can have on a case’s possibility for progression. Because of the passage of time and a lack of, or a failed, prosecution means that the approach to media use needs to be different. The purpose of this paper is to explore how the media could be used as an investigative resource for cold cases.

This study is a result of a 7-month observation period with a 2-force collaborative cold-case team in England, and supplemented with interviews with 12 experienced cold-case detectives. Using inductive thematic analysis, the themes identified allow an exploration of detectives’ use of the media and the effect that this has on progressing cases. Further, there is discussion as to whether the media’s involvement is positive or negative.

The overarching theme is that when using the media, cold-case detectives are met with a positive reception and interest. The media can be used to obtain information, particularly in cases with minimal information, and it is important to use murder-anniversaries to obtain help from the public. However, this needs to be a carefully managed strategy as the media coverage can be negative, including inaccurate or inappropriate reporting which can be of detriment to the investigation.

To the best of the author’s knowledge, this is the first paper to explore how cold-case detectives have used the media to progress cases, and the findings demonstrate that when the public are encouraged to come forward with information, there is a better chance of case progression. Further research is required to explore how all cold cases can receive appropriate coverage.

The purpose of this study is to outline the specific details and lessons learned during a cold case collaborative effort, which granted graduate students and a professor from the University of South Florida the opportunity to assist Pasco Sheriff’s Office in the investigation of a cold case homicide.

The collaboration between law enforcement and academics is a new and emerging strategy to investigate cold cases and identify the elusive offenders who committed these crimes. Such collaboration aids law enforcement by obtaining a force multiplier for investigative resources, accessing cutting-edge evidence-based research and cultivating innovative approaches to their work. For academics, such collaboration allows the unique opportunity to engage in translational criminology, which is an important and increasingly encouraged aspect of the field.

In this paper, the authors provide an overview of the process used to study this cold case as part of an experiential academic course, provide evidence-based research findings relevant to cold case investigations and outline the steps for others to replicate the efforts.

The authors describe in detail the process used to “work” the cold case, academic research that the authors found useful in understanding and investigating cold cases, important lessons learned and advice for future academics and practitioners who undertake an incredible collaborative effort such as this.

The authors examined how squad members within an Australian state police force perceived and attached enabling or coercive meanings to a suite of management control system (MCS) changes that were new public management (NPM) inspired.

The authors conducted a longitudinal case study of a large Australian state police department utilizing an abductive research design.

The authors found that identification processes strongly conditioned the reception of the MCS changes introduced. Initially, the authors observed mixed interpretations of controls as both enabling and coercive. Over time, these changes were seen to be coercive because they threatened interpersonal relationships and the importance and efficacy of squads in combating serious and organized crime.

The authors contributed to MCSs literature by revealing the critical role that multifaceted relational and collective identification processes played in shaping interpretations of controls as enabling–coercive. The authors build on this to elaborate on the notion of employees’ centricity in the MCS design.

This study suggests that, in complex organizational settings, the MCS design and change should reckon with pre-existing patterns of employees’ identification.

The authors suggested shifting the starting point for contemplating the MCS change: from looking at how what employees do is controlled to how the change impacts and how employees feel about who they are. When applied to the MCS design, employee centricity highlights the value of collaborative co-design, attentiveness to relational identification between employees, feedback and interaction in place of inferred management expectations and traditional mechanistic approaches.

The purpose of this article is to improve the use of evidence-based practice and research utilization in the offender profiling process. The use of offender profiling has been met with increasing resistance given its exaggerated accuracy. The “Investigative Journalist/Expert Field Micro Task Force” model, a collaborative method that incorporates offender profiling and is designed to address unresolved serial homicides, is introduced and evaluated alongside recommendations on attaining adherence.

The model was field tested in 17 instances. The measures used by the Federal Bureau of Investigation to gauge the usefulness of their case consultations, whether their input helped catch the offender, offer new leads, move the case forward, provide new avenues or give new ideas, were used to evaluate the model.

The model established likely patterns of serial murder activity among strangulations of women in Chicago, Cleveland, and Panama and resulted in convictions of suspects in Louisiana and Kansas City. This model is valuable when used to parse modern-day offenders from those who committed unresolved homicides as the latter display different behaviors that can make investigations difficult endeavors. Results from the field tests mirror those from the literature in that profiling alone did not result in the capture of serial killers. Instead, profiling was used in conjunction with other efforts and mainly as a means to keep the investigation moving forward.

Unresolved homicides are at a point of crisis and represent a significant but largely unaddressed societal problem. The success of this model may compel law enforcement to restore faith in offender profiling.