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This study aims to build on social comparison theory to develop a theoretical model of leader–member exchange (LMX) relationship to workplace ostracism through perceived organizational status by coworkers and envy. This study further proposes that warmth and competence may potentially moderate these two indirect effects.

This study tested the hypotheses in a battery manufacturing company located in South China by a survey of 216 employees organized in 55 work teams, using different sources. Additionally, the authors conduct two online vignette experiments to test this study’s mediation, proving the causality.

The authors found that high-level LMX leads to both envy and perceived organizational status by coworkers, which results in a mixed blessing on workplace ostracism toward the employee with high-level LMX. The focal employee’s warmth and competence moderate these indirect relationships.

The authors use LMX to explore antecedents of workplace ostracism and explain how and when these focal employees suffer workplace ostracism from their coworkers. The authors extend the research on LMX by examining the interpersonal risk of being a focal employee. The authors discover two critical boundary conditions – warmth and competence.

This study suggests that it is important to balance the level of the differential LMX; appropriately endorsing other members is a good way to avoid eliciting envy and opposition. Meanwhile, person-oriented citizenship behaviors such as demonstrations of concern or help may shortly build up an employee’s warm impression on their coworkers.

By discovering the bright and dark sides of LMX, this paper has the potential to advance theories on LMX and workplace ostracism. Therefore, the authors believe the current research will have an important impact on relevant research in the future.

This paper aims to propose and conceptualize a five-tier model of corporate social responsibility (CSR) that goes beyond the traditional shareholder-focused approach. The model illustrates the evolution of CSR from risk management to social business, reflecting the growing need for companies to integrate the interests of a wider range of stakeholders and act as agents of social change. By integrating frameworks from previous CSR thinkers, this paper provides a comprehensive view of the development of CSR and its potential transformational impact on business and society.

This paper uses a conceptual review approach, using theoretical insights from fundamental CSR frameworks and integrating them into a new five-tier model. The authors develop the tiers by synthesizing key CSR theories such as traditional shareholder protection, philanthropy, stakeholder engagement and social business models. The proposed model is based on the literature and theoretical constructs, offering an analytical perspective to understand the role of CSR in business and its impact on society over time.

This paper introduces a five-tier model of CSR, starting with CSR risk management based on traditional capitalism, which focuses on protecting shareholders. The model then progresses to CSR philanthropy, which balances shareholder interests with donations to society. Strategic CSR aligns with the concept of the triple bottom line and shared value creation, while transformative CSR emphasizes stakeholder engagement and long-term value creation. At the highest level of disruptive CSR, companies prioritize long-term environmental, social and economic impacts as agents of social change. This model shows how CSR has evolved into a strategic and transformational force in modern business.

The main limitation of this paper is its conceptual nature, as it does not include empirical testing or validation of the proposed model. Although still conceptual, the model offers a practical roadmap for businesses looking to improve their level of CSR implementation. Future research could empirically validate the five levels by assessing their impact on business performance and social outcomes across industries. Thus, the application of this model can go beyond theoretical discourse into an actionable, implementable framework. Furthermore, the authors must continue to explore the implications of each CSR tier on business performance and stakeholder outcomes.

The proposed model offers practical guidance for companies looking to improve their CSR strategies. By understanding the progression from risk management to social business, organizations can identify their current position and develop a plan toward more sustainable and stakeholder-centric practices. The model encourages companies to go beyond compliance and philanthropy, with the aim of creating long-term value through proactive engagement with stakeholders and social innovation.

This five-tier CSR model encourages companies to shift from reactive approaches toward actively creating lasting social change. In the early stages, CSR focuses on risk mitigation and donations. As companies move to the strategic and transformative levels, they engage more with stakeholders and create long-term value. At the highest level, disruptive CSR turns companies into proactive agents of social change, integrating social and environmental sustainability into their core business. This model has the potential to improve social welfare, empower communities and build more resilient and innovative societies.

This paper makes an original contribution by offering a new multitier CSR model, which goes beyond existing theories. The model integrates classic and contemporary CSR concepts into a structured progression, emphasizing the shift from risk mitigation and philanthropy to more strategic, transformational and socially impactful CSR practices. The highest level in this model, disruptive CSR, presents a vision of the future where companies are actively involved in social change, providing a new perspective on CSR discourse.