Attendees' experiences of anime conventions in the United States: a netnography study

Abstract

Purpose

Guided by stimulus-organism-response (SOR) theory, this study analyzed the user-generated content (UGC) produced by attendees from six anime conventions in the USA.

Design/methodology/approach

A total of 739 online reviews and 1,932 photos were collected from the social platforms of six large anime conventions in the USA (Yelp and Facebook), and the study employed thematic analysis and image analysis to analyze the collected UGCs.

Findings

The findings revealed eight main themes (i.e. ambient and space, customers, service and products, sign and symbol, social density, emotional status, motivation, and behavior intention) and 32 subthemes across the three dimensions of SOR theory. Leveraging the power of cutting-edge image analysis, the image labels obtained from the analysis contributed to the creation of network clusters. The result of the image analysis also continued consistently with the thematic analysis result, which reflected SOR theory.

Research limitations/implications

Theoretically, the study applied SOR theory and blended thematic and image analyses to gain a comprehensive understanding of anime convention attendees’ experience and categorized the attendees’ emotional status as positive or negative to reflect their overall evaluation. Practically, this study highlighted some complaints from attendees and provided suggestions for operators. However, the study focused only on large anime conventions in the USA; future studies should compare attendees’ experiences with small and large conventions or anime conventions worldwide.

Originality/value

The study utilized UGCs to understand the key patterns essential to attendees during anime conventions in the USA and applied SOR theory to its investigation.

Citation

Liu, T., Liu, S. and Lee, Y.M. (2024), "Attendees' experiences of anime conventions in the United States: a netnography study", International Journal of Event and Festival Management, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 394-415. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEFM-07-2023-0060

Introduction

Anime conventions are events dedicated to anime, manga (Japanese comics), cosplay, and Japanese popular culture (Geek Stuff, n.d.). With the rising popularity of anime and manga worldwide, anime conventions have attracted a significant number of attendees (Jones, 2020). They showcase various anime exhibits and offer the opportunity for anime fans to immerse themselves in the atmosphere of Japanese culture and interact with those who share similar interests (Jones, 2020; Liu et al., 2022a). At present, Japanese anime culture has developed rapidly in Western countries, especially in the USA (Clyde, 2020). As a result, the USA has the highest number of anime-related events compared to the overseas market (Masuda et al., 2021). Furthermore, anime conventions are gaining popularity in various US states, attracting a significant number of anime fans each year (Jones, 2020). For example, in 2022, 315 anime conventions were held in various major cities (e.g. Los Angeles and Houston) in over 45 different states (AnimeCons.com, 2022). Anime fans attending Anime NYC, an anime convention held in New York City, increased from 46,000 in 2019 to 53,000 in 2021 (Chen and Bloomberg, 2021). The anime conventions are also revenue generators, contributing to the growth of the local economy. For instance, Anime Expo, the largest anime convention in North America held in Los Angeles, brought in USD 55 million to the city due to sales in food, tourism, and other merchandise (Orsini, 2015). Moreover, mega anime conventions offer opportunities to understand attendees’ experiences, motivations, behavioral intentions, and emotions regarding conventions (Chen et al., 2019). For example, in Japan, Yamamura (2015) focused on the Toyako Manga Anime Festa, a cosplay anime event in Toyako, Hokkaido, as a case study, and highlighted the challenges and new directions for holding anime conventions. However, there is a lack of studies focusing on the experiences of attendees at anime conventions in the USA.

With the increased popularity of anime conventions and rapid development of the Internet, user-generated content (UGC) has become a valuable source for researchers in understanding individuals’ travel or event experiences (Chiu and Leng, 2021). UGC refers to a type of online content, such as texts and photos, developed and shared by Internet users. UGC-derived information is reliable and offers viewers’ authentic reflections of commenters’ experiences (Gretzel and Yoo, 2008; Lu and Stepchenkova, 2015). Within the framework of events and conventions, UGCs have a significant influence on the prospective attendance behavior of convention participants. According to Schibinski et al. (2019), UGCs have a significant influence on individuals’ event attitudes, which further affects attendees’ visit intentions. Moreover, UGCs reveal attendees’ experiences and information about an event (Marine-Roig et al., 2017). While researchers have analyzed the UGCs of potential events in the form of text (Chiu and Leng, 2021), research opportunities remain to analyze UGCs in both texts and photos to compare the similarities and differences between contents and images. In addition, previous studies have focused mainly on UGCs’ discussions of anime tourism destinations and other types of events, such as food festivals; there is a distinct lack of UGC-based studies on anime conventions (Celuch, 2021; Liu et al., 2022b). With the booming of social network sharing platforms, attendees are more likely to record and share their experiences of specific events in different forms of UGCs, such as photos and texts (Ma and Atkin, 2017). Thus, UGCs from these events are essential for researchers to understand attendees’ experiences (Toutounchi and Izquierd, 2017). With the thriving of the anime convention industry in the USA, attendees have started to leave comments and photos as forms of UGCs on online platforms, such as Yelp and Facebook. It was reported that the crowd at Anime NYC, an anime convention held in New York City, expanded from 46,000 attendees in 2019 to 53,000 in 2021 (Chen and Bloomberg, 2021). Prominent gatherings like Anime Weekend Atlanta and Otakon in Washington, D.C., have established dedicated Facebook fan pages, facilitating attendees in disseminating evaluative feedback and authentic experiences. Consequently, the examination of UGCs can explicate the experiential dimensions of anime conventions from attendees’ viewpoints. Such an analysis is instrumental for event organizers to discern attendee preferences, as well as to identify strengths and areas of improvement (Chiu and Cho, 2021).

In tourism and event management-related studies, stimulus-organism-response (SOR) theory has been utilized to evaluate consumers’ experiences (Lam et al., 2011). The SOR theory suggests that an individual’s response to a motivation comes in three stages: stimulus, organism, and response (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). Şahin and Kılıçlar (2023) suggested that SOR theory could be utilized to understand customers’ experiences according to their cognitive values, emotions, and behavioral intentions. In the event and festival fields, Chen et al. (2019) indicated that SOR theory divided attendees’ event experiences into pre-event, on-site, and post-event stages and facilitated understanding of the influence of stimuli (e.g. festivalscape) on the organism (e.g. emotion) and response (e.g. behavior intention). Thus, SOR theory can be utilized to help researchers understand attendees’ experiences with various types of conventions. For instance, Dalgıç and Birdir (2020) utilized SOR theory to understand the major elements and attendees’ experiences during a convention. Their study showed that various key elements of the convention, such as security, staff, and facilities, have a positive influence on attendees’ attitudes and overall evaluations of the experiences.

Although SOR theory has been applied in event and convention studies (Cheng et al., 2020; Jeong et al., 2020), the existing literature has not adequately categorized the themes and subthemes of SOR theory, thereby limiting a comprehensive understanding of the explorational and experiential perspectives of convention attendees. Furthermore, scholars have previously examined the UGCs of prospective events in textual formats, such as those of Chiu and Leng (2021). However, there has been little research that integrates UGCs in both textual and photographic forms, especially in the event and festival fields. Therefore, the objective of this study was to explore the main themes framed within the context of SOR theory by analyzing both textual and photographic UGCs related to attendees’ experiences at prominent anime conventions in the USA.

Literature review

Anime convention

An anime convention is a type of fan convention that includes various elements, such as art displays, media screenings, game competition, classification of fan-generated items, and retail merchandise sales. It mainly celebrates different forms of Japanese popular culture, such as anime, manga, video games, and cosplay (Taylor, 2009; Yamato, 2018). Scrivani (2021) indicated that the growth of the anime industry globally and the development of Japanese popular culture fandoms are two major reasons for the growth of anime conventions worldwide. Japanese anime came into the US market after various efforts to translate the related information into English during the 1980 and 1990s (Clyde, 2020). There were only 100 attendees to the first anime convention held in the USA in 1983; the attendee count had grown to 1,750 by 1992, when the first Anime Expo was held (Scrivani, 2021; Taylor, 2009). Anime conventions now have essential corporate sponsorship to sustain large-scale events. Many cities in North America are pursuing opportunities to hold anime conventions to promote anime culture and attract the anime fans who engage in it (Yergin, 2017).

As anime conventions have gained global popularity, interest has increased among researchers in studying these events and their attendees. For example, Taylor (2009) investigated cosplay among anime convention attendees. The researcher suggested that these conventions offer an ultimate atmosphere for fans to socialize with individuals who share the same interests. Additionally, Yamato (2018) conducted a cultural study to examine the fandom structure of anime conventions in Malaysia, the findings of which indicated that the attendees displayed a sense of togetherness during the convention and felt they belonged to a discursive fandom with others. Additionally, the existing literature on festivals and events points out that a primary aspect of attendees’ experiences is to fulfill their hedonic consumption, which refers to the customers’ demands for an enjoyable and positive experience (Arnould and Price, 1993; Yang et al., 2011). The attendees’ experiences are shaped by a complex interplay of affective, cognitive, and behavioral factors, thereby contributing to the success of conventions or festivals (Morgan, 2008; Schmitt, 2003). Dalgıç and Birgir (2020) revealed that the key success factors for festivals, such as location, food, and security, generated positive experiences for attendees, and these positive festival experiences reinforced attendees’ loyalty toward the event. Bruwer (2014) identified the key aspects for assessing attendees’ experiences, which included service, entertainment, event venue, and amenities. Similarly, Yang et al.’s (2011) study showed that attendees’ experiences and interactions with the atmosphere of the convention significantly shaped their emotional responses to the events. Consequently, identifying attendees’ experiences during anime conventions is essential.

User-generated content (UGC)

Several online social media platforms, such as Yelp and Facebook, have provided opportunities for attendees to share their anime convention experiences as user-generated content. According to Divol et al. (2012), UGCs play a significant role in customers’ decisions and intentions because they trust them. This warrants the investigation of anime attendees’ use of UGCs. According to a study by Lu and Stepchenkova (2015), UGC refers to content created on reachable public websites without an immediate relationship with financial profit or marketable interest. UGC is also defined as an electronic form of word-of-mouth that distributes positive and negative information regarding an event. It is an essential data source generated by users and attendees themselves that reflects their opinions, personal narratives, and experiences (Baka, 2016) on social media platforms such as Facebook and Yelp. UGCs can be texts, photos, and/or videos, but the combination of photos and texts produces a higher influence on other individuals’ perceptions of the product because it is more holistic (Ma and Atkin, 2017). UGCs are frequently utilized by customers in the service industry for decision making and have a significant impact on individuals’ planning behaviors. Customers also acknowledged that UGCs provide trustworthy, contemporary, and comprehensive information (Gretzel and Yoo, 2008; Song and Yoo, 2016). Consequently, the massive volume of UGCs could provide sufficient information and sources for academics and practitioners to understand customers’ experiences and opinions regarding a potential event (Baka, 2016).

In the academic field, UGCs offer various benefits to researchers, such as data availability, simplicity, and speed of collection. Additionally, UGCs can help researchers evaluate customers’ service experiences immediately after the service or expenditure – researchers typically experience difficulty collecting such data themselves (Kar et al., 2021). Thus, researchers in the hospitality and tourism field have turned their attention to collecting and analyzing UGCs created by customers (Lu and Stepchenkova, 2015). Chiu and Cho (2021) collected and analyzed UGCs in the form of photos and text from travel websites to investigate the tourism experience at Formosan Aboriginal Culture Village in Taiwan. The photos revealed that aboriginal culture provided the most indelible experience for travelers. The text displays five main themes: park, tribe, vehicles, garden, and kids. Among anime-related studies, Liu et al. (2022b) analyzed UGCs from four anime tourism destinations in Tokyo and identified service, enjoyment, and behavioral intentions as the three major themes most frequently mentioned by travelers. However, in the event management field, few studies have focused on the UGCs of mega sports events. Chiu and Leng (2021) collected and analyzed the UGCs of Formula 1 Singapore Grand Prix and identified seven major themes regarding the event experience of attendees. Subsequently, they suggested that the UGCs of entertainment events from numerous online platforms warranted more attention. Therefore, this study collected and analyzed the UGCs of anime convention attendees in photo and text forms to offer a better understanding of their experiences. The researchers also assumed that the services, attendees’ feelings, and behavioral intentions could provide important insights from the UGCs of anime convention attendees. The SOR theory was used to study these three components in the next section.

Stimulus–organism–response (SOR) theory

Stimulus–organism–response (SOR) theory was introduced by Mehrabian and Russell (1974) in psychology before expanding to other research fields. This theory suggests that environmental stimuli (S) could result in an emotional reaction or an organism (O) that could stimulate a behavioral response (R). Specifically, customers usually seek potential stimuli to assist them in developing emotions for any product or service that they purchase and to generate behavioral responses (Peng and Kim, 2014). In the service industry, previous studies have frequently employed this theory to identify consumer behavior and understand customers’ experiences to reveal their decision-making processes (Chen et al., 2022). This theory offers researchers a theoretical approach that combines environmental/external, internal, and behavioral factors to study customers’ experiences (Luqman et al., 2017). Chen et al. (2019) utilized SOR theory to investigate the attendees’ experience at a local festival in Macau, and the researchers classified the festivalscape, the main features of the festival (e.g. atmosphere, decoration, and physical surroundings) as the stimuli dimension, motivations (e.g. belief and hedonic experience) as the organism, and attitude and behavior (e.g. recommendation and revisit intention) as the response. Furthermore, SOR theory is essential for explaining attendees’ experiences in the pre-visit, on-site, and post-visit stages. In the pre-visit stage, attendees are interested in numerous stimuli at the convention. During the on-site stage, the attendees acquire their own experiences. In the post-event stage, attendees respond by demonstrating various behavioral intentions (Chen et al., 2019). Therefore, the current study employed this theory to examine attendees’ experiences with anime conventions according to their UGCs on social media platforms.

The stimulus (S), also known as the “input,” is the first major component of SOR theory; it refers to external marketing and environmental factors that could impact or stimulate individuals’ internal emotional states (Kim et al., 2020; Vergura et al., 2020). Craik (1968) also suggested that the everyday physical environment is a stimulus that can be measured in the form of a service, brand image, and products (Rajaguru, 2014). In hospitality studies, the servicescape is one of the applicable elements identified as a stimulus (Chen et al., 2022). A servicescape is defined as a human-made physical environment for customers and employees, and it has an essential impact on individuals’ emotional situations and behavioral intentions (Bitner, 1992). Previous studies have identified ambient conditions, employees, customers, signs, and social density as the major terms of a servicescape (Pizam and Tasci, 2019; Rosenbaum and Massiah, 2011). Perceived quality, including products (e.g. food) and service quality, is another major component of stimuli in hospitality studies (Jang and Namkung, 2009). Lee et al. (2008), who introduced the festivalscape concept, indicated that the basic atmosphere perceived by attendees is food, information, program content, and facilities as different forms of stimuli.

Organism (O), which is the “process,” is the second component of SOR theory. Organism refers to individuals’ internal states, mediated by the relationship between stimuli and responses. The three main components of the organism are physiological, cognitive, and emotional (Mehrabian and Russell, 1974). From a consumer behavior perspective, emotion has been widely employed as an appropriate organism in previous studies; it refers to a collection of separate and phenomenologically different affective statuses (Ladhari et al., 2017). Moreover, emotions can be measured based on positive and negative factors (Jang and Namkung, 2009). For example, Chatterjee (2019) categorized joy and surprise as positive emotions, while anger and distress were classified as negative emotions. According to event and festival studies, motivation, which refers to the initial point from which an individual’s further decision making is derived, is one of the elements under the organism dimension (Chen et al., 2019; Middleton and Clarke, 2012). Understanding customers’ motivations has proven instrumental for service providers in optimizing their performance throughout customers’ decision-making processes, thereby attracting more guests and elevating their overall enjoyment (Dewar et al., 2001). Consequently, researchers in the field of events have increasingly directed their focus toward comprehending attendee motivations. Savinovic et al. (2012) delineated key motivations for consumers participating in conventions and festivals, encompassing escape, food and entertainment, family togetherness, socialization, and novelty. Furthermore, it has been found that customers’ motivations for attending local festivals are influenced by various event features, such as decorations, physical environment, and sound, coupled with the cultural exploration aspect (Chen et al., 2019). These findings collectively emphasize the importance of understanding attendees’ motivations regarding event experiences.

The third component, response (R) or output is the consequence of stimuli and organisms in SOR theory and refers to the outcomes or decisions made by customers (Chen et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2020). Bagozzi (1986) inserted this concept into SOR theory, suggesting that a response is the result of customers’ reactions and exemplifies attitude and behaviors. According to previous studies, a response can be measured by behaviors and preferences in a positive (approach) or negative (avoidance) way (Jang and Namkung, 2009). Within this framework, behavioral intention, defined as the likelihood of individuals’ intention to engage in potential behavior, is an important element of the response dimension (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975; Kim et al., 2020). For service providers, understanding and predicting behavior is essential, as it is correlated to the future development and survival of their businesses (Wu et al., 2014). In the context of conventions, events, and festivals, behavioral intentions can be observed through attendees’ recommendations and revisit intentions (Chen et al., 2022; Jang and Namkung, 2009). Additionally, expressed loyalty and purchasing intentions are two types of essential behavior that contribute to the overall success of service providers (Shen, 2014; Kim et al., 2020).

Hospitality researchers frequently utilize SOR theory to examine customers’ experiences based on the influence of stimuli on organisms and responses. Kim et al. (2020) utilized SOR theory to understand consumer behavior in virtual reality tourism. These researchers found that stimuli influence tourists’ cognitive and affective responses in the organism stage and further influence tourists’ visit intention in the response stage. In the event management field, SOR theory has been used to understand attendees’ experiences, emotions, and behavior intentions. Specifically, Jeong et al. (2020) employed SOR theory to investigate the customers of small-scale sporting events. This study identified that customers’ emotional experiences in the stimuli dimension influence customers’ emotional value, which further affects their loyalty. Mason and Paggiaro (2012) also utilized SOR theory and indicated that some types of festivalscapes in the stimuli dimension, such as food, can have a significant impact on customers’ emotional experience and satisfaction toward food and wine festivals, which further influenced their behavior intention (e.g. recommendation). Cheng et al.’s study (2020) revealed that attendees’ positive emotions positively influenced their revisit intentions to the event or festivals, guided by SOR theory. However, most previous studies that employed SOR theories were quantitative studies. Few studies have been conducted using qualitative methods to systematically categorize the sub-themes of a “festivalscape” under the stimuli dimension and classify emotions under the organism dimension into positive and negative reactions. This study utilized SOR theory to theorize anime convention attendees’ experiences according to their UGCs from social media platforms, such as Yelp and Facebook, from large anime conventions in the USA with at least more than 50 online reviews on all available platforms.

Methodology

Netnography

Netnography is a methodological adaptation of ethnography to online contexts (Kozinets, 1997, 2015) and is particularly well suited for the qualitative study of anime convention attendees through the analysis of online review data (Morgan, 2008). Unlike traditional ethnography, netnography allows for the examination of participant experiences in virtual spaces, thus eliminating geographical and temporal constraints (Hine, 2008; Kozinets, 1997). This approach is justified for anime conventions, as attendees frequently engage in online communities and share their experiences on various platforms (Costello et al., 2017; Thanh and Kirova, 2018). Compared to other qualitative methods, netnography focuses on storytelling and understanding comprehensive social trends and helps researchers create themes according to customers’ opinions.

Whalen’s (2018) study examined the distinctions between ethnography and netnography studies. Ethnography studies concentrate on individuals within specific communities, exploring interactions between consumers and sellers and gathering data through observations, interviews, or surveys. Netnography studies, in contrast, investigate individuals in isolated online communities, collecting data from sources such as online reviews, blogs, and forums (Whalen, 2018). Moreover, netnography helps researchers access more readily available information and populations that are difficult to reach in consumer studies, which makes it more convenient and less expensive for researchers to collect qualitative data than traditional ethnography. This method is more objective and naturalistic than interviews and focus groups (Kozinets, 2002; Wu and Pearce, 2014). Therefore, in alignment with the feature of this study, which involved the data collection and analysis of online UGCs from anime convention attendees, netnography was deemed more suitable than ethnography.

Attendees who have attended events or festivals share their positive and negative experiences in the form of messages and photos on social media communities, which helps organizers enhance their events (Hoksbergen and Insch, 2016). In the context of anime convention attendees, this also aligns with the digital nature of anime fandom, which often uses online forums and review sites as primary communication channels. Online reviews posted on social media can influence individuals’ attitudes regarding a potential event and motivate their intentions to visit (Schivinski et al., 2019). In event and tourism studies, Thanh and Kirova (2018) employed netnography to analyze the customer experience of wine destinations and festivals, and the researchers indicated that netnography is well adapted to analyze the customer experience of wine tourism and festivals. Similarly, this study employed netnography as the qualitative methodology to guide the analysis of UGCs that provide consumer insights in a large quantity and aims to seek meanings behind the data. Therefore, netnography offers a non-intrusive, in-depth, and contextually relevant lens through which to understand the cultural phenomena of anime conventions as reflected through the digital narratives of their attendees.

Data collection of anime conventions’ UGCs

The researchers collected UGCs (both textual and image data) of the six large anime conventions held in the USA, consisting of the Anime Expo in Los Angeles, California; FanimeCon in San Jose, California; SacAnime in Sacramento, California; Anime Weekend Atlanta in Atlanta, Georgia; Anime Central in Rosemont, Illinois; and Otakon in Washington, D.C. All of these anime conventions have more than 100 UGCs on two credible online platforms, Facebook and Yelp. Data from 2012 to 2022 were collected because the earliest UGC on Facebook for the six selected anime conventions dated back to 2012. The date of the convention, published date, convention name, source, participant name, photos posted, and participant reviews were collected. A total of 739 UGCs were collected for thematic analysis, 340 from Yelp and 399 from Facebook. Along with online reviews, photos posted on online platforms were included. In total, 1,932 photos were collected. Table 1 illustrates the reviews from each convention.

Data analysis

Thematic analysis

Thematic analysis, a research method for identifying and reporting the pattern of qualitative data, was selected for the data analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006). The coding was developed according to previous anime tourism studies (e.g. Liu et al., 2022a) and event management studies that utilized SOR theory (e.g. Chen et al., 2019, 2022). Three levels of coding techniques were employed that categorized the data into dimensions, themes, and subthemes (Liu et al., 2022b). Selective coding using NVivo 12 was conducted. Selective coding refers to hierarchical coding, which systematically classifies numerous instances of coding into various hierarchical categories according to a theoretical sense (Saldaña, 2021). This method helped researchers select and categorize the data into a unified and meaningful generalization (Williams and Moser, 2019). Two researchers independently coded the data. To ensure coding reliability, the researchers cross-checked their results to identify any differences in the UGC codes. For any differing codes, a third researcher then independently coded those specific UGCs. The results from this third researcher were then compared with the first two researchers’ findings. Any discrepancies in coding were discussed until agreement was reached. Finally, eight themes and 32 subthemes emerged under three major dimensions according to SOR theory.

Image analysis

For image analysis, the researchers (1) stored images in URL format, (2) used Google Cloud Vision Application Programming Interface (API) object detection to assign labels for the images, (3) created connections based on the produced image labels in the same photo, and performed network analysis to understand the image label clusters. In recent years of tourism literature, the Google Cloud Vision API has become a popular tool for understanding topics on mobile travel applications (Irmanti et al., 2017) and clustering destination images (Yu and Egger, 2021) using image data. Google Cloud Vision is an image recognition technology that allows researchers to retrieve image features, including label detection. The label detection feature can provide generalized labels for an image, and each label returns a textual description to describe the image content (Google Cloud Vision API Guides). To further understand the labels produced by Google Vision API, network analysis was performed using Gephi software to visualize the label clusters.

Results

Results by dimensions and themes

A total of 5,252 references were generated from the textual data of 739 UGCs from anime tourism attendees. Table 2 illustrates the themes and sub-themes that emerged from the reviews.

Specifically, the stimuli dimension accounted for 3,425 (65.21%) references in this study. As reported in Table 2, there are five themes under the stimuli dimensions: Service and Products (1,405, 26.75%), ambient and space (768, 14.62%), customer (634, 12.07%), social density (543, 10.34%), and sign and symbol (75, 1.43%). Ambient and space included the facilities of the anime convention, surrounding area, and the location where the event was held, transportation and parking, indoor and outdoor environment, safety and security issues, and photo opportunities for attendees. For example:

• (1) Ambient and Space (Environment and Security): … (clearly organized lines, covers, or water misters when waiting outside under 90-degree heat and better interior air circulation) … Safety should be priority #1 to help ensure everyone can safely enjoy AX. (Teddy, 09/2015 posted, Yelp, review from Anime Expo in Los Angeles, CA)

The theme customer had a total of 634 (12.07%) references, and it contained the age of the customer, cosplay and costumes, and socialization with family, friends, and other attendees. For example:

• (2) Customer (Age, Socialization with Attendees, and Cosplay and Costumes): There was a lot to see, and everyone was nice and polite. I’m glad enough to meet and take pics with all kinds of people, from small kids to adults. (Edith Amador, 10/2017 posted, Facebook, review from Anime Weekend Atlanta in Atlanta, GA)

Additionally, the theme service and products contained 1,405 (26.75%) references: it involved shopping, food, and activities inside the convention, ticket and badge issues, operation and management issues, and staff, volunteers, and guests invited to the event. For example:

• (3) Service and Products (Food, Activity, and Volunteers): Maid Café has been running for the past three years … It’s a themed teatime. For $12, you have teatime for an hour, including a beverage … and a dessert … The servers are dressed in adorable maid outfits and guys butler attire … Really laid-back atmosphere. Twelve dollars seems a lot, but you got to think these people participating are volunteering to do this. It’s fun, and the staff are adorable. (Nekiba M., 10/2013 posted, Yelp, review from Anime Weekend Atlanta in Atlanta, GA)

The theme, sign and symbol, had 75 (1.43%) references. This theme covers the decoration, COVID-19 policy for the event, and the rules or signs of the anime convention. For example:

• (4) Sign and Symbol (COVID-19 Policy): Even with Covid taking its toll, SacAnime keeps things safe by requiring its patrons to provide vaccination records or a negative test prior to entrance … (Genelyn S., from Sacramento, CA, 01/2022 posted, Yelp, review from SacAnime in Sacramento, CA)

There were 543 references under Social Density, and this theme included attendees’ personal space during the event, waiting line, and crowd. For example:

• (5) Social Density (waiting line and crowd): We arrive one hour early to find the line closed because they are already at full capacity. Waiting over an hour while fighting hordes of crowds to get from place to place to see a panel that will be uploaded to YouTube within a number of days is just crazy! (Sadie H., 07/2015 posted, Yelp, review from Anime Expo in Los Angeles, CA)

The organism dimension had 1,075 references (20.5%). Emotional status, including surprise, enjoyment, distress, and anger, accounted for 692 (13.18%) references. For example:

• (6) Emotional Status (Distress): I’m disappointed that I missed the photoshoot (must have overlooked it in the schedule guide), but this nearly made up for it! (Isaiah Koch, 05/2015 posted, Facebook, Review from Anime Central in Rosemont, IL)

• (7) Emotional Status (Enjoyment): I enjoyed some of the programming and the exhibit hall. One of the things that made this event for me was the Cybird booth. I enjoyed their activities ever since they debuted at AX a few years ago. (Andrea R., 08/2019 posted, Yelp, review from Anime Expo in Los Angeles, CA)

Motivation had 383 (7.29%) references under this theme. It included attendees’ expectations and personal backgrounds. For example:

• (8) Motivation (Personal Background): I’ve been going to Otakon since 2004. While it used to be a local convention to me, I have since moved to the West Coast but still make the effort to fly back each year just for this con. (Chris Kaczmarczyk, 10/2019 posted, Facebook, review from Otakon in Washington, DC)

The response dimension and behavioral intention contained 725 references, accounting for 14.3% of the reviewed UGCs. The response dimension included attendees’ authentic anime experiences, revisit intentions, recommendations for future attendees and operators, and comparisons with previous conventions. For example:

• (9) Behavioral Intention (Revisit Intention and Comparison): I might come back again IF they announce more guests ahead of time, the Gundam competition comes back, and prices go down … Next year, I’m definitely going to Anime Expo since they’re more guests. (Bobby K., 5/2013 posted, Yelp, review from FanimeCon in San Jose, CA)

Image analysis results

Image labels frequency and validity checking

After applying Google Vision API to 1,932 collected photos, top common labels such as “event,” “fun,” “fictional character,” “hat,” “art,” and “costume” appeared very frequently. To visualize the results, a word cloud was created to provide an overview of the identified labels. In addition, Table 3 includes the top 20 labels by frequency. For validity and reliability purposes, 200 images were randomly selected, and the labels produced by Google Vision API were checked. With a Cohen’s Kappa value of 0.91, the labels generated by Google Vision API and the researchers’ interpretations of the labels’ descriptions appeared to be in satisfactory agreement (Landis and Koch, 1977) (Figure 1).

Image labels clustering network

To better understand the image labels’ associations, a clustering network was performed through Gephi 0.10.1 based on the emerged image labels, as well as their frequency of co-occurrences, which indicated strong linkages. An edge table was generated with labels appearing in the same image, demonstrating the co-occurrences. To better comprehend the themes from the images, modularity was used in community detection over the image labels; this is one of the most common approaches for community detection over partitioning a network (Newman, 2006). The top 50 edges were selected for visualization; Figure 2 illustrates the communities by three modularity classes segmented by an unsupervised embedded machine learning algorithm. Labels highlighted in purple represent the dominant theme event and leisure and constitute 59.26% of modularity; labels highlighted in green represent the theme costume and fiction and constitute 29.63% of modularity; and labels highlighted in orange represent the theme art and design and constitute 11.11% of modularity. Figure 2 presents the image labels network, and Table 4 represents the top 20 edges, with labels’ and co-occurrence’s frequencies.

Discussion

Stimulus dimension

This study aims to understand attendees’ personal experiences with large anime conventions based on UGCs from online review platforms (i.e. Yelp and Facebook). Grounded in SOR theory, service and products was the theme most focused on by anime convention attendees under the stimulus dimension; this is supported by Chen et al.’s (2019) findings. Among the six major subthemes under service and products, staff, volunteers, and operation were two major subthemes. The Service and Operation issues from staff and volunteers essentially influenced attendees’ experiences. The attendees who received excellent service from volunteers reported that they enjoyed themselves. In contrast, rude staff and volunteers, as well as other operational issues (e.g. disorganized events), could ruin the attendees’ experience and cause them to leave negative comments (Holmes and Smith, 2009; Lee et al., 2015). Besides these two major subthemes, the event attendees frequently reported that the conventions provided various types of activities, such as cosplay events, which they enjoyed. Previous studies have also suggested that special activities enhance the attractiveness of festivals (Cheng et al., 2020). Furthermore, issues with tickets and badges were frequently mentioned, and technical issues from the online ticketing system and the extra charge for potential events were two major issues reported by attendees, which supports Celuch (2021) study. However, some attendees reported that the anime conventions had improved their ticketing process for customers in recent years.

Under the ambient and space theme, the attendees mentioned that some facilities inside the convention center, such as air conditioners and clean restrooms, brought convenience and comfort to attendees. Therefore, the availability of facilities inside or outside the convention center highly influenced the customer experience (Dash and Samantaray, 2018). Besides facilities, the environment was also a distinctive subtheme. The attendees reported that the atmosphere during the convention was friendly and awesome, which supports the assertion that the physical environment enhances individuals’ feelings about festivals (Lee, 2014). Regarding photo opportunities, the attendees took a huge number of photos, such as those with outstanding cosplayers. The anime conventions also provided opportunities for attendees to receive autographs with the special guests they invited. Moreover, the attendees complained about the difficulty of finding parking spaces and the high parking fees. Thus, some attendees also tried using public transportation or Uber to attend anime conventions.

Under the customer theme, cosplay and costumes were one of the unique subthemes. The anime conventions provided opportunities for attendees to wear costumes and dress up as the various anime characters they loved. The event operators provided specific areas for the cosplayers to take photos. Furthermore, crowds and personal space were also two major social density issues during anime conventions. These findings support the assertion that crowd management is crucial for event operators to avoid accidents and disasters (Martella et al., 2017). Large-scale conventions are mass gatherings and high-density events that carry a huge risk of widely spreading COVID-19, which has had an essentially negative impact on the performance of the event industry (Ryan et al., 2021; Seraphin, 2021). Therefore, some anime conventions have introduced COVID-19 policies during the post-COVID period to prevent the spread of the virus.

Organism dimension

Emotional status was the most indicated theme under organism, and the reviews reflected that enjoyment was generated by positive stimuli, such as fantastic cosplays and an excellent atmosphere. On the contrary, negative emotions, such as anger and distress, were reported by customers in response to negative stimuli, such as the price of the ticket and food items. These findings support the idea that the various types of stimuli explained by SOR theory are related to customers’ positive and negative emotions (Jani and Han, 2015). However, the emotional status of surprise contained both positive and negative feelings, which was inconsistent with the findings of previous studies (i.e. Chatterjee, 2019), which classified it as a positive emotion. The attendees felt positively surprised by things such as the professionalism of the volunteers. However, they also felt negatively surprised by poor crowd management. Therefore, surprise can be classified as both positive and negative emotions.

Besides emotional status, Motivation is another essential theme (Chen et al., 2019), and attendees’ backgrounds are one of the essential motivations. Some individuals mentioned that their motivation to attend anime conventions was their level of interest in Japanese anime, such as anime fans, which supported Kirillova et al.’s (2019) finding. This study also indicated that the expectations for and beliefs in an anime convention also motivate attendees. For example, some attendees mentioned that they went to anime conventions to seek the elements of potential anime series, meet with special Japanese guests, and enjoy themselves.

Response dimension

In the response dimension, behavioral intention was the only theme with four subthemes, and revisit intention was most frequently mentioned. Attendees who had positive emotions frequently noted the revisit intention and recommendations to others, saying that they could not wait to return next year. Additionally, some attendees who felt disappointed or angry claimed that they would never return (Altinay et al., 2023; Cheng et al., 2020). This study also found that the authentic anime experience, which refers to an individual’s distorting of reality and fantasy and acquiring a sense of being in an imaginary world, is also an essential component of attendees’ behavioral intentions (Liu et al., 2021). According to previous studies (Liu et al., 2021, 2022a), anime tourists who travel to pilgrimage sites seek an authentic experience that psychologically blends into the world of anime works to construct a fantasized identity. The anime convention attendees also had the same authentic experience, such as having a feeling of being in the heaven of anime and building their fantasized identity by watching fantastic cosplays and attending various activities.

Anime convention images

Due to the nature of the images, stimuli appear to be the most common representation, describing the environment, the interior, and the costume. The results from the image analysis shared some consistency with the results from the thematic analysis. Event and fun were combined most frequently from the images of the anime convention, which reflected the positive emotions of the attendees, and a smile was one of the image labels under the Event and Leisure theme, which was consistent with the results of the thematic analysis that positive emotion was frequently mentioned by attendees. Costume and fiction were the second largest themes from the photo analysis, which included labels such as hat, boots, and fictional characters, and the label combination of “event and fictional characteristic,” “event and costume,” and “costume and fictional characteristic” also frequently occurred together. These findings implied that the attendees found cosplay attractive for them to take pictures during anime conventions, and cosplay and costume were categorized as sub-themes in the stimuli dimension from the result of thematic analysis. The photo analysis also categorized the image labels, such as interior design, art, and font, as being in the art and design theme, supporting the result of the thematic analysis that decoration is one of the sub-themes in the stimuli dimension, where images directly reflect the external environment. Similar to thematic analysis, crowd and city were major elements of the photo analysis, signifying their importance in anime conventions. Overall, the combined results of the image and thematic analyses identified the key elements that were important to the attendees, based on SOR theory.

Theoretical implications

Theoretically, this study makes two significant contributions to anime literature. First, it is one of the first studies to apply SOR theory as a theoretical foundation to analyze attendees’ experiences at mega anime conventions. This theory guided this study in a novel way. It identified a wide array of attributes from anime conventions that play an essential role in the attendees’ experiences, and it assisted the researchers in understanding the attendees’ emotional and behavioral intentions behind the UGCs (Chen et al., 2019). Specifically, it classified emotional status into positives and negatives, which provide a better view of anime convention attendees’ involvement in the organism and response stages. In this study, the findings on the positive and negative emotions displayed by the attendees further confirmed the festivalscape elements that influenced the attendees’ evaluations.

Second, the integration of dual modes in data analysis, thematic and image, contributes to a comprehensive understanding of UGCs from three aspects: (1) From a methodological perspective, this study provided depth and richness of qualitative data. This reinforced the idea that qualitative data are multi-faceted. Including photos as the data source underscored the theoretical stance that visual data can provide complementary, sometimes even contradictory, insights that might not be readily apparent through textual data alone. (2) Potentially, the methodological approach used in this study could enrich the SOR theoretical framework. The findings from the thematic and image analyses of anime conventions offer novel insights or dimensions that can be integrated into the existing model, such as social density and emotional status breakdowns. From the image analysis results, the dimensions of costume and fiction and art and design appear to be unique viewpoints and can potentially expand the scope of SOR theory. (3) By leveraging both thematic and image analyses, the study might set a methodological precedent for subsequent research in similar domains, emphasizing the importance of a dual-analysis approach for a thorough understanding.

Practical implications

Based on the investigation of anime convention attendees’ experiences, the findings also have some general implications for the event industry. In this study, some of the negative evaluations were for poor crowd management, insufficient volunteers’ training, and safety of anime conventions. Many of the attendees complained that the volunteers and staff were rude and unable to provide appropriate help. Some attendees mentioned that event operators should reinforce volunteer training for their next event. Therefore, the event operators should pay more attention to improving the training for the volunteers and staff, for instance, by enhancing volunteers’ skills in greeting customers, solving problems, and providing high-quality service during the conventions. Volunteer training helps event operators achieve success by enhancing volunteers’ service quality and further reinforcing customer satisfaction (Leigh et al., 2021).

Moreover, it is essential for event organizers to enhance crowd management during anime conventions, as the results of this study showed that the attendees frequently complained about crowdedness, the need for some personal space, and shorter wait times to enter the venues. Crowd management is necessary for event operations to ensure the safety and security of the event and festival (Rahmat et al., 2011). Some possible considerations for crowd management include the greater use of technology such as self-service kiosks for check-in and crowd monitoring devices for tracking crowds (Martella et al., 2017). Event operators can hire crowd managers to evaluate the occupancy of the facility (Bigda, 2021). The findings of this study also revealed that event operators should enhance the facilities provided to attendees. These may include adding a cool air machine and restrooms outside the exhibition center. Providing more parking spaces at a reasonable price could also increase attendees’ experiences and satisfaction (Ho et al., 2022).

Concerning anime conventions, positive emotions are triggered by various activities, such as costume contests, a maid café space, mini-concerts, and video games (Joice, 2022). Knowing the popular activities and features of a convention provides event operators with tangible selling points. Therefore, event organizers might consider allocating more resources, time, and space to these activities, ensuring that they are well-executed and highlighted in event promotions (Mason and Paggiaro, 2012). The results from the image analysis showed that the cosplayed anime characters and art elements from the conventions were especially popular for attendees. Recognizing the types of photos frequently uploaded can guide event organizers in creating dedicated spaces or backdrops for photo opportunities and guide digital strategies. Organizers could create online contests, hashtags, or campaigns centered on these themes to boost online engagement before, during, and after the event (Celuch, 2021).

Limitations and future research opportunities

This study has some limitations. First, it focused only on online reviews from large anime conventions (i.e. ones with more than 10,000 attendees) held in the USA. Because the size and locations of the conventions may affect attendees’ experience, future studies should compare the differences between attendees’ experiences at small anime conventions held locally and large anime conventions held in major cities, as well as conventions held outside the USA to better understand the experiences of attendees with different cultural backgrounds. Second, the data collected from this study were secondary data from Facebook and Yelp. One of the limitations of UGC data is the lack of attendees’ demographic information. Collecting such information can help researchers understand the specific avenues of customer segmentation, position, and targeting (Guo et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2021). Future studies could also consider multiple data collection methods and data sources, such as focus groups, interviews, and surveys, to collect data from anime convention attendees and explore their experiences to provide a more comprehensive view of anime conventions (Chiu and Cho, 2021). Third, some attendees to the anime conventions did not share their experiences online. People have different motives for sharing through online platforms, and sometimes the motives behind sharing are due to either an extremely satisfactory or an extremely dissatisfactory experience (Liu et al., 2016). Thus, it could have brought some extremity biases to the results of this study. Extremity bias refers to reviewers who do not represent the population of anime convention attendees (Karaman, 2021). Fourth, this study applied SOR theory in its investigation. Other theories, such as the theory of consumption value, which examines how consumers’ perceived values serve as a motivating factor for their consumption behavior, can also be applied in studies (Sheth et al., 1991); this theory has been widely used in hospitality and tourism research to understand consumers’ selection behaviors of choice of services or products (Tanrikulu, 2021). When applied to an anime convention, the event’s safety and crowdedness can be classified as a utilitarian value, while the feeling of enjoyment is an example of hedonic values. Therefore, this theory appears to be a good fit for future research to understand the experiences and behaviors of anime fans.

Figures

Figure 1

Word Cloud for image labels describing anime convention images

Figure 2

Image labels network

Table 1

Reviews of each anime convention

Name of anime convention	Total reviews
Anime Expo	207
Fanimecon	99
SacAnime	135
Anime Weekend Atlanta	115
Anime Central	118
Otakon	65
Total	739

Source(s): Authors’ own creation

Table 2

Distribution of dimensions, themes, and subthemes

	Total count (n)	Percentage (%)
Stimuli	3,425	65.21
Ambient and Space	768	14.62
Environment	126	2.40
Safety/Security	65	1.24
Photo opportunity/autograph	111	2.11
Facilities	304	5.79
Surrounding area/Location	71	1.35
Transportation and Parking	91	1.73
Customer	634	12.07
Cosplay/costumes	292	5.56
Socialization with attendees	146	2.78
Socialization with family/friends	154	2.93
Age	42	0.80
Service and Product	1,405	26.75
Activity/event	303	5.77
Staff/volunteer/guest	305	5.81
Operation/management	268	5.10
Shopping	183	3.48
Food	111	2.11
Ticket/badge	235	4.47
Sign and Symbol	75	1.43
Rules/sign/brochure	52	0.99
Covid Policy	15	0.29
Decoration	8	0.15
Social Density	543	10.34
Waiting Line	355	6.76
Crowd	163	3.10
Personal space	25	0.48
Organism	1,075	20.47
Emotional Status	692	13.18
Enjoyment	425	8.09
Distress	177	3.37
Angry	50	0.95
Surprise	40	0.76
Motivation	383	7.29
Expectation	83	1.58
Personal Background/Previous Experience	300	5.71
Response	752	14.32
Behavior intention	752	14.32
Revisit intention	231	4.40
Recommendation	163	3.10
Comparison	221	4.21
Anime Authentic Experience	137	2.61
Total	5,252	100.00

Source(s): Authors’ own creation

Table 3

Top 20 produced image labels by frequency

Label	Count of label
Event	1,255
Fun	572
Fictional character	493
Hat	475
Art	469
Costume	351
Recreation	308
Leisure	285
Crowd	257
T-shirt	256
Luggage and bags	239
Font	234
Boot	233
Shorts	225
Smile	217
Flooring	210
Toy	208
Thigh	202
Fashion design	200
Entertainment	197

Source(s): Authors’ own creation

Table 4

Image labels co-occurrence frequencies

Node 1	Node 1 frequencies	Node 2	Node 2 frequencies	Co-occurrence frequencies
Event	1,255	Fun	572	488
Event	1,255	Hat	475	415
Fictional character	493	Event	1,255	397
Costume	351	Event	1,255	339
Art	469	Event	1,255	277
Recreation	308	Event	1,255	249
Fun	572	Hat	475	240
Event	1,255	Crowd	257	228
Fictional character	493	Costume	351	220
Event	1,255	Boot	233	216

Source(s): Authors’ own creation