Abstract
Purpose
This study aims to identify various socioeconomic variables that influence the development of work alienation among Indian bank employees.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from a sample of 552 employees working in ten public and ten private sector banks in Punjab. Statistical techniques such as the independent sample t-test, Welch’s F-test, and Games–Howell procedure were used for data analysis.
Findings
Results of this study indicated that socioeconomic variables, namely, age, educational qualification, monthly income, and work experience, significantly influence work alienation among bank employees. In contrast, gender, marital status, type of bank, and cadre did not have any significant relationship with work alienation.
Originality/value
This study is one of the limited research studies that has examined the linkage between socioeconomic variables and work alienation in the context of the banking sector of a developing nation like India.
Keywords
Citation
Singh, S. and Randhawa, G. (2024), "Determinants of work alienation among bank employees: a socioeconomic perspective", Vilakshan - XIMB Journal of Management, Vol. 21 No. 2, pp. 308-321. https://doi.org/10.1108/XJM-09-2023-0193
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2024, Sabia Singh and Gurpreet Randhawa.
License
Published in Vilakshan - XIMB Journal of Management. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence maybe seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode.
1. Introduction
The banking sector is considered one of the most dominant and essential elements of the service industry that determines the economic growth, financial performance, and sustainability of the nation (Manikyam, 2014; Nikhil and Deene, 2023). Over the years, the Indian banking sector has encountered several transformations with the advent of technology, globalization, rising competitiveness, and changing customers’ expectations (Kaura et al., 2015; Mengi, 2009; Vidyarthi and Tiwari, 2020). Whether it was demonetization or the COVID-19 outbreak, Indian banks always relied on their human resources to effectively and efficiently manage such complicated events (Malini et al., 2017; Unnikrishnan, 2021). Indian banking jobs are undoubtedly stressful, and marked by the existence of intense workloads, consistent work pressure and extensive competition (Das, 2020). To constructively handle such arduous jobs, bank employees need to be physically and psychologically sound. However, the development of a pessimistic workplace attitude in the form of work alienation carries the potential to further add to the woes of bank employees by posing a threat to their physical and mental well-being (Vohra et al., 2019). To elaborate, work alienation may lead to undesirable aftermaths in the form of reduced employees morale, a decline in their job performance and productivity, and enhanced job burnout and turnover intentions (Özer et al., 2019; Singh and Randhawa, 2022a, 2024; Usman et al., 2020).
The notion of work alienation has captured the interest of various researchers and academicians in the diverse vocational settings in developed nations. But empirical investigation of such a negative job attitude in the case of developing nations is still not adequate (Nair and Vohra, 2009). In addition, the extant literature on the determinants of work alienation stayed focused on several organizational and attitudinal variables such as leadership style (Sarros et al., 2002), psychological contract breach (Li and Chen, 2018), and job resources (Chen and Ye, 2024). Research studies, however, exploring the association of socioeconomic variables with work alienation are very scarce in the literature, especially in the context of a developing nation like India. To bridge such a research gap, the present study focuses on identifying various socioeconomic variables that contribute to the development of work alienation among Indian bank employees.
2. Literature review
2.1 Work alienation
Derived from the Latin term “alienare,” alienation implies “estrangement.” Shantz et al. (2014, p. 2534) opined that work alienation is “a dissociated state of the individual in relation to the product or process of work.” Work alienation can be described as an estrangement, detachment, or disengagement experienced by an employee from his work (Nair and Vohra, 2009; Shantz et al., 2015).
Table 1 provides an overview of research studies, examining the relationship between socioeconomic variables and work alienation conducted across varied cultural and occupational settings.
The summarized literature in Table 1 shows that there are considerable differences in results across different occupational settings. For instance, in terms of gender, the studies conducted among employees working in training and management consulting companies (Aboul-Ela, 2015), staff of travel agencies (Zaki and Al-Romeedy, 2018), and nursing staff (Mohamed et al., 2022) expounded that gender did not have a significant relationship with work alienation. These findings, however, are opposed by the authors (Banai and Weisberg, 2003; DiPietro and Pizam, 2008; Naik, 1978; Nightingale and Toulouse, 1978; Yousefi and Azizi-Zeinalhajlou, 2016) who conducted the studies across public and private sector companies, quick-service restaurant industry, nationalized bank, industrial organizations, and health insurance organization, respectively. These studies reported that work alienation differs significantly due to gender. In this context, Banai and Weisberg (2003) argued that female employees were less likely to experience self-estrangement as compared to male employees due to the presence of certain mechanisms that make females more flexible and capable of handling themselves and the world around them. A limited number of studies have explored the relationship between work alienation and socioeconomic variables like income and job position or cadre. However, such studies (Aboul-Ela, 2015; Brender, 1996; Mohamed et al., 2022; Zaki and Al-Romeedy, 2018) have found the existence of significant relationships among the aforementioned variables. Thus, with the exceptions of income and job position, similar discrepancies in results across different occupational settings have been observed for other socioeconomic variables.
Furthermore, Table 1 also reveals that the findings of the previous research studies related to the relationships between various socioeconomic variables and work alienation are inconsistent and contrasting. To elaborate, certain studies (Aboul-Ela, 2015; Nightingale and Toulouse, 1978) found a positive relationship between age and work alienation, whereas others (DiPietro and Pizam, 2008; Mottaz, 1981) reported a negative relationship. These contradictory patterns in results have been observed for other socioeconomic variables as well. Such inconsistencies, hence, provide a clear indication for examining the linkages between socioeconomic variables and work alienation.
Finally, Table 1 highlights that most of the studies were conducted in the USA, Egypt, and Turkey. In other words, there is weak evidence of a considerable amount of research on the relationship between work alienation and the selected socioeconomic variables in the Indian context. This study, thus, attempts to fill such research gaps.
3. Research methodology
3.1 Objective of the study
The objective of the present study is to identify various socioeconomic variables that influence the development of work alienation among Indian bank employees.
3.2 Hypotheses of the study
The following hypotheses have been proposed for the study:
There is a significant difference in work alienation between male and female employees.
There is a significant difference in work alienation across age groups.
There is a significant difference in work alienation between married and unmarried employees.
There is a significant difference in work alienation between graduate and postgraduate employees.
There is a significant difference in work alienation between public and private sector banks’ employees.
There is a significant difference in work alienation between officers and clerks.
There is a significant difference in work alienation across monthly income groups.
There is a significant difference in work alienation across work experience groups.
3.3 Research design and procedure
The sampling technique adopted for the present study was purposive cum convenience sampling. By using a standardized questionnaire, data were collected from the permanent bank employees working in ten public and ten private sector banks in Punjab. The data collection process was carried out by contacting the employees during the official working hours of the banks. The time frame of data collection was July 2019 to January 2020. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed, out of which 552 were found to be complete and usable for this study.
3.4 Measure
An eight-item “Work alienation” scale given by Nair and Vohra (2010) was used in the study to assess the respondents’ feelings of estrangement/disengagement from their work. Responses to all the items were recorded on a seven-point Likert scale that ranges from 1 (“Completely disagree”) to 7 (“Completely agree”). The reliability of the scale was determined through the value of Cronbach’s alpha (α = 0.931) which was found to be acceptable.
3.5 Demographic profile
Out of a total of 552 respondents, 59.8% were male and 51.8% belonged to the age group of 21–30 years. Furthermore, 58.7% of the respondents were married and 51.1% were graduates. With regard to the type of bank in which respondents were employed, 50.2% were from public sector banks and 49.8% were from private sector banks. The majority of the respondents (78.8%) were officers. In the case of monthly income, 31.7% of the respondents earned up to ₹ 30,000 per month. In addition, 45.7% of the respondents had a work experience of less than five years.
4. Data analysis
4.1 Gender and work alienation
In this study, gender has been categorized into two groups, namely, “Male” and “Female.” An independent sample t-test has been applied to determine whether work alienation differs significantly with respect to the gender of the respondents (refer Table 2).
The results in Table 2 reveal that the “t” value is 0.676, which is not significant (p > 0.05). This implies that there is no significant difference in work alienation between male and female employees. Therefore, the proposed hypothesis H1 is not supported.
4.2 Age and work alienation
In the present study, four age groups, represented as G1: 21–30 years, G2: 31–40 years, G3: 41–50 years, and G4: 51 years or above, have been considered for the purpose of analysis. To ascertain whether there is a significant difference in work alienation on the basis of age of the respondents, Welch’s F-test has been applied (refer Table 3).
Table 3 shows that the assumption of homogeneity of variance is not met (p < 0.05) in the present case. Therefore, the “Robust Tests of Equality of Means,” i.e. Welch’s F-test output is taken into consideration for the analysis. The results reveal that work alienation differs significantly on the basis of the age of the respondents (Welch’s F = 25.192, p < 0.001). Hence, the proposed hypothesis H2 is supported. Furthermore, the results of the Games–Howell post hoc analysis are tabulated in Table 4.
Table 4 shows that the work alienation mean score in the case of those respondents belonging to age group G1 (21–30 years) is significantly different from other age groups, namely, G2 (31–40 years), G3 (41–50 years) and G4 (51 years or above). In addition, the highest mean value of work alienation has been found for G1 (21–30 years), i.e. 3.767, and the lowest mean value for G4 (51 years or above), i.e. 2.392 (refer Table 3). This implies that younger employees have higher work alienation levels than their older counterparts.
4.3 Marital status and work alienation
In the present study, on the basis of the marital status of the respondents, two categories, namely, “Married” and “Unmarried” have been formed. To analyze whether there is a significant difference in work alienation on the basis of respondents’ marital status, an independent sample t-test has been used (refer Table 5).
The results in Table 5 depict that the difference between the mean scores of work alienation of married and unmarried respondents is not significant (t = −1.511, p > 0.05). Thus, the proposed hypothesis H3 is not supported. This implies that work alienation does not differ significantly on the basis of marital status of bank employees.
4.4 Educational qualification and work alienation
The educational qualification has been segregated into two categories. The first category consisted of graduates and the second category included postgraduates. An independent sample t-test has been used to determine whether work alienation differs significantly on the basis of educational qualification of the respondents (refer Table 6).
The results presented in Table 6 shows that the difference in the mean scores of work alienation between employees having graduate and postgraduate degrees is significant (t = −6.468, p < 0.001). Thus, the proposed hypothesis H4 is supported. Furthermore, the mean value of work alienation is found to be low, i.e. 3.012, and high, i.e. 3.780, for employees having graduate and postgraduate degrees, respectively. This implies that employees with higher educational qualification levels have higher work alienation levels.
4.5 Type of bank and work alienation
In this study, the type of bank in which employees are working has been divided into two groups, i.e. “Public” and “Private.” To determine whether work alienation differs significantly due to the type of bank, an independent sample t-test has been used (refer Table 7).
Table 7 depicts that the difference between the mean scores of work alienation of public sector and private sector banks’ employees is not significant (t = −1.475, p > 0.05). Hence, the proposed hypothesis H5 is not supported. This implies that work alienation does not differ significantly on the basis of type of bank in which employees were employed.
4.6 Cadre and work alienation
The cadre of the respondents has been divided into two categories represented as “Officer” and “Clerk.” To ascertain whether work alienation varies significantly on the basis of cadre, an independent sample t-test has been used (refer Table 8).
Table 8 indicates that there is no significant difference in work alienation with respect to the cadre of the respondents (t = 1.333, p > 0.05). Thus, the proposed hypothesis H6 is not supported.
4.7 Monthly income and work alienation
The responses toward the income level have been categorized into four groups, namely, G1: up to ₹ 30,000, G2: ₹ 30,001–40,000, G3: ₹ 40,001–50,000, and G4: more than ₹ 50,000. Welch’s F-test has been applied to examine whether work alienation differs significantly on the basis of the monthly income of the respondents (refer Table 9).
As indicated by the results in Table 9, the assumption of homogeneity of variance is not met (p < 0.05). Thus, analysis has been carried out on the basis of Welch’s F-test output. The finding shows that there is a significant difference in work alienation across monthly income groups (Welch’s F = 13.103, p < 0.001). Thus, the proposed hypothesis H7 is supported. Furthermore, the results of the Games–Howell post hoc analysis are shown in Table 10.
Table 10 indicates that the work alienation mean score in the case of respondents belonging to monthly income group G4 (more than ₹ 50,000) is significantly different from other monthly income groups, i.e. G1 (up to ₹ 30,000), G2 (₹ 30,001–40,000) and G3 (₹ 40,001–50,000). Furthermore, the mean value of work alienation in the case of the highest income group, G4 (more than ₹ 50,000) i.e. 2.877 is found to be lower in comparison to the lowest income group, G1 (up to ₹ 30,000), i.e. 3.733 (refer Table 9). This implies that employees with lower income levels have higher work alienation levels.
4.8 Work experience and work alienation
The work experience of the respondents has been divided into four categories, namely, G1 (Below 5 years), G2 (5–10 years), G3 (11–15 years) and G4 (16 years or above). To analyze whether there is a significant difference in work alienation on the basis of respondents’ work experience, Welch’s F-test has been used (refer Table 11).
From Table 11, it is evident that the assumption of homogeneity of variance is not satisfied (p < 0.05). Considering Welch’s F-test results, it can be inferred that work alienation differs significantly on the basis of work experience of the respondents (Welch’s F = 17.270, p < 0.001). Hence, the proposed hypothesis H8 is supported. Furthermore, the results of the Games–Howell post hoc analysis are depicted in Table 12.
Table 12 shows that the work alienation mean score in the case of those respondents belonging to work experience group G1 (Below 5 years) is significantly different from other work experience groups, namely G2 (5–10 years), G3 (11–15 years) and G4 (16 years or above). Also, the highest mean value of work alienation has been observed for the respondents with the lowest work experience, i.e. G1 (Below 5 years; mean = 3.776) and the lowest mean value has been shown by respondents with the highest work experience i.e. G4 (16 years or above; mean = 2.711) (refer Table 11). This indicates that bank employees with less work experience are more susceptible to feelings of work alienation than those with more work experience.
5. Discussion and conclusion
The present study aimed at determining the association of socioeconomic variables such as gender, age, marital status, educational qualification, type of bank, cadre, monthly income and work experience with work alienation among bank employees. Findings revealed that gender had no significant relationship with work alienation of employees, which is in congruence with the results of previous studies (Aboul-Ela, 2015; Agrawal, 2007). Furthermore, work alienation levels were found to be higher among younger employees as compared to older employees. This finding is similar to those of Blauner (1964) and Mottaz (1981). According to these studies, younger employees tend to be more concerned about intrinsic job factors such as a sense of accomplishment associated with doing the job, responsibility, and skill development as compared to older employees (Kirsch and Lengermann, 1972). Furthermore, the process of adapting aspirations to objective possibilities takes some time to fully evolve in the case of young employees who have an immense desire to be fulfilled in their jobs in contrast to their older counterparts (Blauner, 1964). As a result, younger employees respond more strongly to the negative aspects of their present jobs and are more sensitive to alienating work conditions (DiPietro and Pizam, 2008; Mottaz, 1981). Furthermore, it was found that work alienation does not differ significantly on the basis of marital status.
Further, the study indicated that highly educated employees experienced more work alienation as compared to less educated employees. This finding aligns with those of DiPietro and Pizam (2008) and Mottaz (1981). These authors suggested that highly educated employees place more emphasis on, and have greater expectations for, fulfillment in work. When their expectations from their work in terms of self-expression are not met, they tend to become more prone to feelings of work alienation (Mottaz, 1981). In addition, employees with higher educational qualifications are more likely to perceive that their abilities are not commensurate with their job demands, and they are not able to adequately utilize their skills at their workplace. As a result, they may experience work alienation (Mitchell, 1984; Shantz et al., 2015). Results of the study also revealed that the type of bank and cadre had no significant relationship with work alienation.
In addition, findings indicated that employees earning less income experience more work alienation. Due to limited financial access, employees earning less income are at higher risk of being alienated from their work due to their inability to do or get what they actually want which leads to feelings of desperation, depression, emptiness, and hopelessness (Zaganjori, 2016). On the contrary, higher income allows employees to be less dependent on other individuals for their material needs. This enhances their power to acquire personal satisfaction and self-fulfillment by providing them control over their financial needs. Such positive feelings, in turn, help in curbing one’s tendency to experience negative feelings of work alienation (Brender‐Ilan, 2012). The study also reported that work alienation levels decrease with an increase in work experience. Employees with more work experience tend to develop broader skill sets, better coping strategies, and greater resilience over time which curb the formation of feelings of alienation from work (Tsang, 2018). In addition, such employees also develop a more positive perception of organizational policies and practices. They have a stronger commitment to their employers, which leads to a decline in their work alienation levels (Al Hosani et al., 2020).
6. Theoretical and managerial implications
The previous research on work alienation was mainly concerned with the identification of its antecedents and consequences in the form of organizational and attitudinal variables (Nair and Vohra, 2010; Shantz et al., 2015). There seemed to be a scarcity of research on the role of socioeconomic variables in predicting work alienation, especially among bank employees, in the context of a non-western nation like India. The present study, thus, attempts to augment the existing body of literature on work alienation by drawing attention to the importance of socioeconomic variables in the development of feelings of alienation from work among bank employees.
This study has highlighted specific socioeconomic variables such as age, educational qualification, monthly income, and work experience that significantly influence work alienation. To elaborate, the findings of the study have indicated that those employees who are young, highly educated, earn less income, and have less work experience tend to become more alienated from their work. The management of the banks, thus, is suggested to take into consideration these socioeconomic factors as vital elements while designing HR policies and practices to address work alienation. For instance, by extending organizational support to employees, reducing work pressure, providing job autonomy and participation in decision-making activities, and adopting transformational leadership style, the development of work alienation among such employees can be curbed by the management (Guo et al., 2022; Lee et al., 2022; Li and Chen, 2018; Sarros et al., 2002; Singh and Randhawa, 2022b).
7. Limitations and suggestions for future research
This study has certain limitations. First, the present study covers a single sector (banking sector). Thus, the variation of findings in the context of other occupational and industrial settings may occur. Furthermore, a limited number of demographic variables have been considered in the present study. Other socioeconomic variables such as designation, type of family, number of dependents, and place of origin can be included in future studies to determine their association with work alienation. Furthermore, the impact of demographic characteristics on work alienation can be explored in other sectors such as education, health care, and hospitality.
Research studies exploring the relationship between socioeconomic variables and work alienation
| S. No. | Author(s) (year) | Socioeconomic variables considered | Sample description | Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Naik (1978) | Gender, length of service, age and time spent in the current department | 101 employees working in a nationalized bank, India | Among various socioeconomic variables considered in the study, only age and gender had a significant relationship with work alienation |
| 2 | Nightingale and Toulouse (1978) | Salary, age, gender, education and hierarchy level | 1,000 employees working in ten English-Canadian and ten French-Canadian organizations, Canada | Alienation was significantly negatively affected by education and hierarchy level and positively by age and gender in case of the French-Canadian sample. While in the case of the English-Canadian sample, education and salary had a significant negative impact on alienation |
| 3 | Mottaz (1981) | Age, gender and education | 1,313 employees working in varied occupational settings, USA | Age and education were reported to be significantly negatively and positively related to work alienation, respectively, whereas no significant association was found between gender and work alienation |
| 4 | Calabrese and Fisher (1988) | Experience | 178 teachers of public schools, USA | Work experience was found to be significantly negatively related to alienation |
| 5 | Crank et al. (1995) | Experience and education | 1,427 employees including police chiefs and county sheriffs, USA | Work alienation levels were low among police executives who were postgraduates. Furthermore, experience had a significant negative relationship with work alienation |
| 6 | Brender (1996) | Income | 305 workers employed on a full-time basis, USA | High level of income was related to low level of alienation (social and personal alienation) |
| 7 | Banai and Weisberg (2003) | Education and gender | 725 public and private sector employees, Russia | Education was found to be significantly negatively associated with alienation. Furthermore, male employees were found to be more alienated in terms of self-estrangement as compared to female employees |
| 8 | DiPietro and Pizam (2008) | Gender, age, education and ethnicity | 595 employees working in quick-service restaurant industry, USA |
A significant negative association was reported between age and work alienation, whereas education was found to be positively correlated with work alienation. In addition, male employees were found to be more prone to feelings of work alienation as compared to female employees, whereas Hispanics were found to be less alienated than African Americans |
| 9 | Aboul-Ela (2015) | Gender, education, managerial position, marital status and age | 300 employees working in the training and management consulting companies, Egypt | Work alienation was found to differ significantly due to managerial positions held by the employees along with their marital status. No significant association was reported between education, gender and work alienation. However, age had a significant positive relationship with work alienation |
| 10 | Yousefi and Azizi-Zeinalhajlou (2016) | Education, age, marital status and gender | 143 employees working in health insurance organization, Iran |
Work alienation was reported to differ significantly due to the gender, marital status and age of the respondents. Furthermore, no significant relationship was found between education and work alienation |
| 11 | Zaganjori (2016) | Age, experience and education | 158 employees working in tourism agencies, Turkey | Work alienation had a significant association with the experience and age of the respondents. However, no significant difference was reported in work alienation due to education |
| 12 | Unguren et al. (2016) | Education and marital status | 641 hotel employees, Turkey | Education had a significant negative impact on work alienation. Furthermore, feelings of work alienation were dominant among unmarried employees as compared to their married counterparts |
| 13 | Tsang (2018) | Work experience | 21 teachers working in secondary schools, Hong Kong | More experienced teachers were less likely to experience alienation as compared to less experienced teachers |
| 14 | Zaki and Al-Romeedy (2018) | Age, income, gender, work experience and marital status | 229 employees employed in travel agencies, Egypt | Statistically, significant association was observed between work experience, income and work alienation. However, gender, age and marital status did not have any significant relationship with work alienation |
| 15 | Mohamed et al. (2022) | Age, experience, department, gender, marital status, position and education level | 508 nursing staff, Egypt | Work alienation was found to vary significantly due to the education level and position of the respondents. No significant difference in work alienation was observed due to other demographic variables |
Source: Authors’ compilation
Independent sample t-test results with respect to gender and work alienation
| Gender | N | Mean | Values | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Work alienation | Male | 330 | 3.422 | t= 0.676 |
| Female | 222 | 3.336 | p= 0.500 |
Source: Table created by authors
Welch’s F-test results with respect to age and work alienation
| Test of homogeneity of variances | Robust tests of equality of means | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Levene statistic | Sig. | Statistic | df1 | df2 | Sig. | Mean | |
| 4.499 | 0.004 | Welch | 25.192 | 3 | 147.948 | 0.000 | G1 = 3.767 G2 = 3.202 G3 = 2.848 G4 = 2.392 |
Source: Table created by authors
Post hoc test results with respect to age and work alienation
| Dependent variable | (I) Age | (J) Age | Mean difference (I-J) | Std. error | Sig. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Work alienation | 21–30 (G1) | 31–40 | 0.56528*** | 0.13991 | 0.000 |
| 41–50 | 0.91971*** | 0.19402 | 0.000 | ||
| 51 or above | 1.37506*** | 0.17003 | 0.000 | ||
| 31–40 (G2) | 21–30 | −0.56528*** | 0.13991 | 0.000 | |
| 41–50 | 0.35443 | 0.20796 | 0.327 | ||
| 51 or above | 0.80978*** | 0.18577 | 0.000 | ||
| 41–50 (G3) | 21–30 | −0.91971*** | 0.19402 | 0.000 | |
| 31–40 | −0.35443 | 0.20796 | 0.327 | ||
| 51 or above | 0.45536 | 0.22931 | 0.200 | ||
| 51 or above (G4) | 21–30 | −1.37506*** | 0.17003 | 0.000 | |
| 31–40 | −0.80978*** | 0.18577 | 0.000 | ||
| 41–50 | −0.45536 | 0.22931 | 0.200 |
*** Significant at p < 0.001
Source: Table created by authors
Independent sample t-test results with respect to marital status and work alienation
| Marital status | N | Mean | Values |
|---|---|---|---|
| Work alienation | |||
| Married | 324 | 3.309 | t = −1.511 p = 0.131 |
| Unmarried | 228 | 3.498 | |
Source: Table created by authors
Independent sample t-test results with respect to educational qualification and work alienation
| Educational qualification | N | Mean | Values |
|---|---|---|---|
| Work alienation | |||
| Graduate | 282 | 3.012 | t = −6.468 p = 0.000 |
| Postgraduate | 270 | 3.780 | |
Source: Table created by authors
Independent sample t-test results with respect to type of bank and work alienation
| Type of bank | N | Mean | Values |
|---|---|---|---|
| Work alienation | |||
| Public | 277 | 3.297 | t = −1.475 p = 0.141 |
| Private | 275 | 3.478 | |
Source: Table created by authors
Independent sample t-test results with respect to cadre and work alienation
| Cadre | N | Mean | Values |
|---|---|---|---|
| Work alienation | |||
| Officer | 435 | 3.430 | t = 1.333 p = 0.183 |
| Clerk | 117 | 3.229 | |
Source: Table created by authors
Welch’s F-test results with respect to monthly income and work alienation
| Test of homogeneity of variances | Robust tests of equality of means | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Levene statistic | Sig. | Statistic | df1 | df2 | Sig. | Mean | |
| 4.052 | 0.007 | Welch | 13.103 | 3 | 264.795 | 0.000 | G1 = 3.733 G2 = 3.657 G3 = 3.405 G4 = 2.877 |
Source: Table created by authors
Post hoc test results with respect to monthly income and work alienation
| Dependent variable | (I) Monthly income | (J) Monthly income | Mean difference (I-J) | Std. error | Sig. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Work alienation | Up to 30,000 (G1) | 30,001–40,000 | 0.07627 | 0.18116 | 0.975 |
| 40,001–50,000 | 0.32785 | 0.17715 | 0.252 | ||
| More than 50,000 | 0.85563*** | 0.14815 | 0.000 | ||
| 30,001–40,000 (G2) | Up to 30,000 | −0.07627 | 0.18116 | 0.975 | |
| 40,001–50,000 | 0.25158 | 0.19996 | 0.591 | ||
| More than 50,000 | 0.77936*** | 0.17479 | 0.000 | ||
| 40,001–50,000 (G3) | Up to 30,000 | −0.32785 | 0.17715 | 0.252 | |
| 30,001–40,000 | −0.25158 | 0.19996 | 0.591 | ||
| More than 50,000 | 0.52778* | 0.17063 | 0.012 | ||
| More than 50,000 (G4) | Up to 30,000 | −0.85563*** | 0.14815 | 0.000 | |
| 30,001–40,000 | −0.77936*** | 0.17479 | 0.000 | ||
| 40,001–50,000 | −0.52778* | 0.17063 | 0.012 |
Notes: *Significant at p < 0.05; ***significant at p < 0.001
Source: Table created by authors
Welch’s F-test results with respect to work experience and work alienation
| Test of homogeneity of variances | Robust tests of equality of means | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Levene statistic | Sig. | Statistic | df1 | df2 | Sig. | Mean | |
| 3.078 | 0.027 | Welch | 17.270 | 3 | 175.899 | 0.000 | G1 = 3.776 G2 = 3.331 G3 = 2.835 G4 = 2.711 |
Source: Table created by authors
Post hoc test results with respect to work experience and work alienation
| Dependent variable | (I) Work experience | (J) Work experience | Mean difference (I-J) | Std. error | Sig. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Work alienation | Below 5 (G1) | 5–10 | 0.44581** | 0.14030 | 0.009 |
| 11–15 | 0.94100*** | 0.22374 | 0.000 | ||
| 16 or above | 1.06567*** | 0.15914 | 0.000 | ||
| 5–10 (G2) | Below 5 | −0.44581** | 0.14030 | 0.009 | |
| 11–15 | 0.49519 | 0.23021 | 0.146 | ||
| 16 or above | 0.61986** | 0.16811 | 0.002 | ||
| 11–15 (G3) | Below 5 | −0.94100*** | 0.22374 | 0.000 | |
| 5–10 | −0.49519 | 0.23021 | 0.146 | ||
| 16 or above | 0.12467 | 0.24215 | 0.955 | ||
| 16 or above (G4) | Below 5 | −1.06567*** | 0.15914 | 0.000 | |
| 5–10 | −0.61986** | 0.16811 | 0.002 | ||
| 11–15 | −0.12467 | 0.24215 | 0.955 |
Notes: ** Significant at p < 0.01; ***significant at p < 0.001
Source: Table created by authors
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