Leveraging the cultural intelligence of sport employees in the globalized sports industry

Abstract

Purpose

In the contemporary globalized sports industry, it is crucial for sport employees to cultivate an essential capability – cultural intelligence (CQ) – to excel in culturally diverse sport environments. The purpose of this study is to propose a comprehensive conceptual framework of sport employees' CQ for enhancing management practices in sport organizations.

Design/methodology/approach

By conducting a thorough literature review of relevant business and sport management literature, this research offers a synopsis of CQ and advocates for the advancement of a developed conceptual framework for sport employees' CQ (CQ-SE).

Findings

The conceptual framework of CQ-SE is proposed to facilitate employees’ effective integration into diverse environments within sport organizations. This framework identifies predictors that enhance sport employees’ CQ, moderating factors to provide deeper insights into these relationships and outcomes at individual, group and organizational levels. We additionally elaborate on the anticipated benefits for stakeholders, given the services provided by sport practitioners.

Originality/value

This study is one of the initial endeavors to conceptualize the concept of CQ for sport employees. This study contributes to the literature on sport organizational culture and human resource management by emphasizing the pivotal role of sport employees’ CQ in promoting greater inclusivity in sport organizations. We encourage sport management researchers to explore the application of CQ in sport contexts and empirically test the relationships proposed in this framework.

Citation

Doh, P.Y., Kim, M. and Nite, C. (2024), "Leveraging the cultural intelligence of sport employees in the globalized sports industry", Sport, Business and Management, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/SBM-04-2024-0042

Introduction

In an era of global prominence, the key to success for sport organizations is to understand diverse social and cultural contexts (Thibault, 2009). Globalized organizations require employees to possess cultural sensitivity, communication skills, and cross-cultural teamwork (Bücker et al., 2014). The absence of these unique skills and abilities among employees can lead to cultural misunderstandings among stakeholders, resulting in socio-economic losses for their organizations. A notable example was Daryl Morey’s short tweet, “Fight for freedom, stand with Hong Kong.” This led to two years of Chinese censorship, which caused the loss of 490 million Chinese viewers and a $400 million deficit for the National Basketball Association (Cha, 2023). Another example that highlights the ongoing nature of cultural challenges in sport is Muslim women athletes’ struggle to compete while wearing hijabs, highlighting the importance of inclusive policies in sport (Alvarez, 2021). To alleviate such detrimental incidents and cultivate the aforementioned skill set, one essential capability that sport employees need to develop is cultural intelligence (CQ).

CQ is an individual’s capability to function effectively in culturally diverse settings (e.g. workplaces, schools) based on cognitive, meta-cognitive, motivational, and behavioral facets (Earley and Ang, 2003). Grounded in the multi-loci intelligence theory (Sternberg and Detterman, 1986), CQ is a multifaceted and state-like construct that can be developed (Ang and Van Dyne, 2015). As a form of competence, employees’ CQ has played a crucial role in achieving preferred organizational behavior outcomes such as job satisfaction (Bücker et al., 2014), innovative work behaviors (Afsar et al., 2020), and job performance (Ang et al., 2007). In the last two decades, CQ has drawn interdisciplinary interests and been empirically examined across fields including business, education, counseling, and aviation (Sternberg and Preiss, 2022). Notably, sport organizations are among the most globalized entities, which serve diverse groups (e.g. fans, participants, attendees). Therefore, it is imperative and meaningful to explore the application of CQ toward sport employees.

The relationship between sport and cultural representation poses challenges in managing diversity (Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999). The diverse audiences served by sport organizations, including fans, participants, and attendees, make the application of CQ particularly important in the field of sport, in avoiding culturally damaging and highly publicized missteps. Moreover, cultural awareness in sport management is crucial for implementing initiatives and programs that establish a foundation of knowledge, attitudes, and skills in intercultural contexts (Thomas and Dyall, 1999). Sport employees attuned to cultural nuances can deliver more appropriate services, effectively conveying cultural events to diverse stakeholders and fostering cultural awareness among those unfamiliar with specific cultures. Therefore, it is imperative and meaningful to explore the application of CQ toward sport employees.

Sport management scholars have long emphasized the importance of cultural and social diversity in fostering an inclusive environment within sport organizations (e.g. Cunningham, 2009; DeSensi, 1994; Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999; Fink and Pastore, 1999). Through proposing and empirically testing the multiple diversity frameworks, they have primarily highlighted the roles of management initiatives (Fink et al., 2001), management policies (Jeanes et al., 2018), and organizational structures (Nite et al., 2020) in sport organizations. Various developmental constructs, including emotional intelligence (Paek et al., 2022), innovative work behaviors (Svensson and Hambrick, 2019), political skill (Treadway et al., 2014), and psychological capital (Kim et al., 2019a, b), have been adapted in sport management discipline. Within the intersection of organizational culture and human resource management in sport settings, CQ can be another vital factor in achieving a competitive advantage in sport industry. Sport organizations can facilitate internal cohesion and expand their appeal to a diverse range of stakeholders by leveraging employees’ CQ to create a culturally aware and diverse workforce.

Despite the utility of CQ, the cultivation and potential outcomes of CQ in sport organizations are underexplored. Overall, the purpose of this study is to develop a comprehensive conceptual framework for sport employees’ CQ (i.e. CQ-SE), detailing its antecedents, contextual factors (i.e. moderators), direct outcomes, as well as individual, team, and organizational outcomes. We outline the CQ-SE framework’s benefits for stakeholders across sport sectors and suggest empirical applications for future research. This study contributes theoretically to applying the concept of CQ to contemporary sport employees and enables human resource managers in sport organizations to develop strategies for enhancing employee CQ.

Theoretical background

Cultural intelligence (CQ)

Research on intelligence types explains how individuals adapt effectively to diverse environments (Sternberg and Preiss, 2022). Types of intelligence, including social intelligence (SQ; Thorndike and Stein, 1937), and emotional intelligence (EQ; Mayer and Salovey, 1993) do not consider cross-cultural adaptation (Earley and Peterson, 2004). In the context of globalization, actors in sport sectors have faced challenges in bridging gaps of intercultural differences among fans in different countries and multinational sport organizations. In this global business environment, another intelligence, CQ, has been introduced to understand why and how individuals differ significantly in their respect to different cultures (Earley and Ang, 2003).

The characteristics of CQ have been conceptualized as a state-like, malleable construct; therefore, organizations and individuals can develop and alter CQ levels (Earley and Peterson, 2004). In an organizational setting, the level of CQ provides holistic and unique information on each employee’s ability to function effectively in intercultural contexts (Earley and Ang, 2003). Based on the theoretical framework of multiple loci of intelligence (Sternberg and Detterman, 1986), CQ has been described as having four subfactors: cognitive, metacognitive, motivational, and behavioral (Ang et al., 2007). As a higher-order core construct, CQ includes having pertinent knowledge (i.e. cognitive CQ), being capable of processing this knowledge (i.e. metacognitive CQ), being motivated to utilize the knowledge (i.e. motivational CQ), and knowing how to adapt and represent the knowledge (i.e. behavioral CQ).

Cognitive CQ

Cognitive CQ refers to individuals’ knowledge levels regarding contextual norms, practices, and conventions in different cultural backgrounds (Van Dyne et al., 2012). Cognitive CQ has been explained by the self-concept model (Gecas, 1982) and identity theory (Stryker, 1980). The self-concept model delineates the self as a dynamic interpretive process integrating cognitive information and the social environment to evaluate self-situated identity. Identity theory highlights an individual’s separate social identities developed via cross-cultural interactions. Individuals acquire knowledge of cultural environments, including different cultures’ economic and social systems and basic frameworks of cultural values (Triandis, 1994).

Deriving from a considerable understanding and experience in intercultural interactions, employees with high cognitive CQ are proficient at recognizing their colleagues’ commonalities, disparities, and unique cultural patterns (Ang and Van Dyne, 2015). An employee’s cognitive CQ facilitates understanding of culture-general and context-specific knowledge (Van Dyne et al., 2012). The role of cognitive CQ has been highlighted in marketing and human resource management for building a higher quality of relationships with colleagues and team cohesion (Fang et al., 2018). Within sports organizations, employees are routinely required to engage in frequent business trips (e.g. away games) and handle diverse individuals, including colleagues, players, staff, and fans. In these circumstances, sport employees’ cognitive CQ could influence the facilitation of cultural knowledge acquisition and effective communication in sport fields.

Metacognitive CQ

Metacognitive CQ can be identified as an individual’s potential to acquire and integrate cultural knowledge through intercultural interactions (Van Dyne et al., 2012). Among the four functions in a model of cognitive monitoring (Flavell, 1979), metacognitive CQ is related to metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experience. Metacognitive knowledge relates to acquiring knowledge, and metacognitive experience pertains to valuing experiences for future interactions (Earley and Peterson, 2004). These cognitive monitoring features enable individuals to adjust actions based on cultural understanding.

Employees with advanced levels of metacognitive CQ in organizational settings can assess and broaden their cultural knowledge by applying insights gained from previous intercultural interactions (Triandis, 1994). Metacognitive CQ helps recognize generational conflicts and cultural compatibility and fosters positive stakeholder impressions. In a sporting context, Lovin et al. (2021) determined that athletes’ metacognitive skills were helpful in their adaptation to new cultural settings. Increasing metacognitive CQ may be integral in sharing creative ideas and developing innovative strategies for organizations wanting to host successful recurring sporting events and ensure broad fan experiences. Increased metacognitive CQ can be highly appealing for multinational sport organizations by contributing to fostering an inclusive organizational culture, raising awareness of global trends and issues, and providing appropriate services.

Motivational CQ

Motivational CQ involves focusing and maintaining effort to function effectively in intercultural settings (Ang and Van Dyne, 2015). It has been grounded in self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985) and social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986). Self-determination theory, which explains by intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, helps describe employees’ predilection for diverse cultural experiences for inherent enjoyment and tangible benefits. Social cognitive theory emphasizes the value of one’s self-efficacy, which can drive adaption to organizational cross-cultural contexts. On the basis of critical catalysts of engagement, individuals can acquire psychological resources for involvement in cultural adaptation and adjustment.

In organizational settings, employees with high motivational CQ proactively engage in intercultural encounters, and it would be valuable to foster confidence in their ability and perseverance to overcome the challenges stemming from cultural differences (Earley and Peterson, 2004; Eccles and Wigfield, 2002). In an international business setting, motivational CQ is a critical aspect of a seamless transition to culturally different work settings (Ang et al., 2007). Especially in the globalized sport industry, employees’ motivational CQ is necessary to initiate and continue work under desired harmonious conditions and sport settings. For example, motivational CQ is one of the preferred abilities of coaches in their endeavors to manage and communicate with players of diverse backgrounds and skill levels.

Behavioral CQ

Behavioral CQ refers to the capability to display appropriate verbal and nonverbal actions in intercultural encounters (Ang and Van Dyne, 2015). As the most recognizable CQ sub-construct, behavioral CQ facilitates intercultural adaptation and interaction. Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) indicates that the development of behavioral CQ can be illustrated through the theory, which lays out the processes of observation, imitation, and reinforcement of appropriate behaviors. In other words, behavioral CQ affords employees the flexibility to display suitable communication behaviors (i.e. verbal, non-verbal, and speech acts) in diverse cultural settings (Triandis, 1994). These flexibilities allow individuals to adjust behavior, minimizing misunderstandings and enhancing communication.

To improve employees’ flexibility, it is necessary to exert a subtle interpersonal influence on the behaviors of others through communicative proficiency. Employees with high behavioral CQ can exhibit inclusive organizational behaviors that fit into their workplaces (Van Dyne et al., 2012). In a fast-paced sport industry, sport employees are compelled to enhance their inclusive communication skills, follow marketing trends, and engage diverse fans. Therefore, sport employees’ behavioral CQ can be key to establishing creative and innovative sport organizations.

CQ in sport management

In the sport management discipline, DeSensi (1994) first delved into the issues of cultural diversity and multiculturalism. Inspired by her seminal work, many sport management scholars have endeavored to maintain that sport organizations ought to take ethical responsibility for cultivating an inclusive environment (e.g. Cunningham, 2019; Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999; Fink and Pastore, 1999).

Within the intersection of sport sociology and sport organizational behavior scholarship, various diversity frameworks have been proposed to describe the roles of different stakeholders for diversity and inclusion in sport organizations. These studies have touched upon a wide range of influences such as top management initiatives (Cunningham, 2009), management policies (Jeanes et al., 2018), a sport organization itself (Fink et al., 2001), and organizational structures (Nite et al., 2020). Although these features have all gained significant prominence, it is also imperative to consider employees’ trait- and state-like influences for an inclusive organizational climate. Particularly, compared to demographic and job characteristics, there has been limited research on sport employees’ developmental and growth factors for effective functioning in intercultural contexts. To address this gap, the current study adapts CQ to sport employees to better understand its role in creating inclusive sport organizations.

Sport organizational behavior researchers have started directing their attention to examining the effects of various positive psychological states (e.g. psychological capital) on gaining competitive advantages and promoting sport employee well-being (e.g. Kim et al., 2017; Oja et al., 2019). Similarly, Paek et al. (2022) recently introduced and emphasized the value of EQ among sport employees by showing how this ability can augment their job engagement and creative behaviors at various levels of sport organizations. Overall, sport employees’ CQ is a promising concept in culturally diverse sport organizations, and it can be deliberately adapted to various sport sectors.

The CQ-SE framework

Sport organizations, ranging from grassroots community clubs to professional leagues and multinational federations, require a specialized approach to CQ. These organizations differ from traditional workplaces by relying on culturally diverse teams, frequent international engagements, and high operational visibility, necessitating a deep understanding of diverse cultures (Cunningham, 2009; Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999). Recognizing the critical role of CQ in sport employees’ effectiveness across various sectors of the sport industry (e.g. public, non-profit/voluntary, and professional/commercial sport sectors; Hoye et al., 2018), we developed the CQ-SE framework (see Figure 1). Specifically, the CQ-SE framework encompasses antecedents of CQ at the individual-, team-, and organizational levels (Propositions 1 through 3). The framework also incorporates moderators that could influence the relationships between the identified antecedents and the development of CQ (Propositions 4 through 6). The direct outcomes of CQ among sport employees have been recognized and described (Proposition 7), and we considered their potential organizational outcomes (Propositions 8 through 10). In addition to this framework, we also comprehensively explored the anticipated benefits for stakeholders in distinct sport sectors.

Individual antecedents

The development of an individual’s CQ is achievable by various factors, including previous experiences, current situations, and personal traits (Ang et al., 2007). First, a key predictor of CQ is intercultural experiences, defined as “all direct and indirect experiences of encountering or interacting with the elements and/or members of foreign cultures” (Leung et al., 2008, p. 169). These experiences accumulate across various communication settings (face-to-face and virtual) and locations (international and domestic) (Fang et al., 2018). In the sport industry, employees frequently engage in intense intercultural interactions, from community sports to global federations. These encounters require a profound understanding of diverse cultural norms and present both opportunities and challenges (Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999).

Proposition 1a.

Sport employees who actively engage in intercultural experiences, particularly in competitive or public-facing contexts, are likely to develop CQ levels.

Second, the diversity of social contacts represents an environmental factor that reflects the extent of culturally diverse interactions individuals engage in. A broad range of socialization opportunities enhances individuals’ awareness of distinct cultures and appropriate behaviors (Bharwani and Jauhari, 2017). In inherently diverse and complex sport organizations, employees interact with a wide array of internal and external contacts. These interactions are not confined to the workplace but extend into broader social networks that include individuals from various ethnicities, races, generations, and socioeconomic backgrounds, encompassing settings like schools, community organizations, and global sporting events (Cunningham, 2009). This breadth of socialization opportunities enables sport employees to develop a more profound understanding of cultural diversity.

Proposition 1b.

Sport employees’ participation in multicultural activities increases the diversity of their professional networks, leading to higher levels of CQ.

Among the Big Five personality characteristics (Goldberg, 1992), openness to experience holds the most considerable leverage in shaping all dimensions of CQ (Ang et al., 2007). Openness to experience refers to an “individual’s willingness to explore, tolerate, and consider new and unfamiliar ideas and experiences” (Homan et al., 2008, p. 1208). In business settings, employees who are more open to experience results in high levels of creative behavior, intellectual pursuits, and interracial attitudes (George and Zhou, 2001). The influence of personality traits on individuals has significant scholarly attention within the field of sport management, targeting sport employees (Weight et al., 2021) and educators of sport management (Zimmer and Keiper, 2021).

Proposition 1c.

In the context of sport organization, employees who are inherently motivated to seek out and embrace cultural encounters, whether through international travel, collaboration with culturally diverse teams, or engagement with global fan bases, are more likely to develop high levels of CQ.

Team antecedents

The deliberate design of team-level experience and training factors can enhance CQ and facilitate external adjustment. Foremost, collective experiences are accumulated among group members through shared insights and history (Berman et al., 2002). In workplaces, collective experiences are vital in establishing a team identity and fostering the development of a positive organizational culture (Stryker, 1980). Consistent collaboration enables employees to learn from each other and gain cultural insights. These experiences are particularly significant in sport organizations, where distinct sub-departments such as ticket sales, marketing, and facility management each develop unique work-unit cultures and traditions (Slack and Parent, 2006). For example, various sub-departments (e.g. marketing, logistics, security) require collaborating closely to ensure smooth operations during large-scale sporting events like the Olympics or FIFA World Cup. Employees in a marketing team may require working with the facility management team to coordinate stadium branding that resonates with a diverse international audience (Parent and Ruetsch, 2020). These cross-departmental collaborations expose employees to a wide range of cultural perspectives and practices, enhancing their CQ as they navigate the complexities of organizing a global event.

Proposition 2a.

Collective experiences within multicultural teams enhance sport employees’ CQ by fostering shared learning and appreciation of diverse cultural perspectives.

Another team-level antecedent of sports employees’ CQ is transformational leadership, an inspirational approach that emphasizes aligning a team and members with the ability to change organizational culture (Bass and Avolio, 1993). As a means of guiding employees’ behaviors in culturally diverse environments, transformational leadership has been preferred to acknowledge individuals’ differences and address their needs (Rubin et al., 2005). This leadership approach is in global sport organizations, where cultural diversity drives organizational dynamics and performance (Cunningham, 2019). Leaders are encouraged to allocate resources for cross-cultural programs, such as cultural sensitivity workshops and language courses. For example, in a multinational sport franchise like the NBA, transformational leaders might implement tailored cultural sensitivity workshops that address the specific cultural challenges their diverse player roster faces. This could include language support for international athletes or training on cultural etiquette for team staff interacting with global sponsors.

Proposition 2b.

By promoting these culturally enriching experiences, transformational leaders directly contribute to elevating the CQ levels of sport employees.

Organizational antecedents

The development of employees’ CQ can also shaped by organizational factors, including organizational innovativeness and diversity and inclusion climate. A prominent organizational-level antecedent of CQ is organizational innovativeness, defined as the capacity to generate novel ideas, processes, or services (Delshab et al., 2022). Contemporary organizations are required to adapt to rapidly changing environments and encourage creative thinking among employees. In sport, organizational innovativeness has been examined in various sporting sectors such as professional (Yoshida et al., 2013) and non-profit contexts (Winand and Anagnostopoulos, 2019). For example, FC Barcelona and Manchester City have pioneered using digital platforms and social media to engage diverse global fan bases, requiring employees to adapt to cultural nuances and communication styles (Smith et al., 2017). Under such sport organizations valuing innovativeness, employees are encouraged to think creatively, step out of their comfort zones, and embrace new cultural experiences as part of the organization’s strategic goals.

Proposition 3a.

Organizational innovativeness enhances sport employees’ CQ by fostering a creative and adaptive environment that encourages cultural exploration and learning.

In addition, diversity and inclusive climate refers to an employee’s perception of the organization adhering to fair personnel practices and the level of integration of minority employees within a workplace (Mor Barak et al., 1998). According to a diversity climate theory (Mor Barak et al., 1998), the manner in which individuals are treated within their respective organizations is important in shaping their organizational attitudes and behaviors. When organizations foster an environment that embraces a wide range of opinions and acknowledges each individual’s background, employees are empowered to authentically express themselves. As sport organizations persistently endeavor to become more welcoming and supportive places, the significance of cultivating a diverse and inclusive climate has gained prominence (Cunningham, 2019). In sport organizations valuing multicultural and supportive working environments, employees likely treat their colleagues equitably. For example, initiatives such as diversity training programs and inclusive recruitment practices in sport organizations like the National Football League and the US Olympic and Paralympic Committee have been instrumental in creating environments where employees feel valued and understood, regardless of their cultural background (Cunningham, 2019).

Proposition 3b.

Employees working in diverse and inclusive sport organizations develop higher levels of CQ by being exposed to and supported in a multicultural environment.

Institutionalization refers to the transformation of social processes, obligations, or actualities into rule-like significance in social cognition and behavior (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Established work routines and norms in institutionalized settings become ingrained (i.e. institutional logic), shaping individuals’ worldviews (Powell and DiMaggio, 2012). This is particularly salient in sport organizations, where institutionalization plays a critical role in shaping organizational culture (Lawrence and Suddaby, 2006). Unlike many other industries, sport organizations often operate within a framework of long-standing traditions, rituals, and cultural narratives that are deeply embedded in their identity (Ashforth et al., 2011). For example, the institutionalization of practices such as team rituals, fan engagement strategies, and community outreach programs reflects the broader cultural significance of sport in society. These established norms influence how employees interact with one another and with external stakeholders, such as fans, sponsors, and media. In this context, institutionalization can either reinforce or challenge existing cultural norms (Hatch and Zilber, 2012), thereby influencing the development of CQ among sport employees.

Proposition 3c.

A sport organization that institutionalizes inclusive practices and intercultural learning opportunities is likely to see a corresponding enhancement in the CQ of its employees.

Moderators of antecedents/sport employees' CQ

To elucidate the determinants that can amplify or diminish sports employees' CQ, we identified potential moderators affecting the relationship between antecedents and CQ. First, at the individual level, sport employees’ business trip frequency may lead to a more substantial improvement in their CQ levels. In the sports industry, extensive travel is an inherent challenge on the rise, but such frequency can be a silver lining. Sports industry professionals often engage in interstate travels for away games and international trips for mega sporting events (Parent and Ruetsch, 2020). These exposures provide valuable insights into cultural nuances, consumer preferences, and market dynamics.

Proposition 4.

Increased frequency of business travel among sport employees enhances their CQ by providing continuous exposure to diverse cultural environments.

Second, we anticipate that collaboration opportunities can play a pivotal role in interacting with team-level antecedents of CQ and accordingly influence sport employees’ CQ levels. Within the work units, collaboration opportunities enable employees to exchange diverse perspectives and acquire valuable communication skills, particularly during intra-departmental and inter-departmental meetings (Romero et al., 2009). In the sport industry, various sub-departments within the same leadership (e.g. marketing, communication, operations, facility management) are often required to collaborate closely to enhance the quality of sporting events. Conversely, isolated teams may limit potential collective experience benefits, hindering CQ development.

Proposition 5.

The effectiveness of collective experiences and transformational leadership in developing CQ can be moderated by the level of collaboration opportunities within sport organization.

Third, the impacts of organizational innovativeness and the diversity and inclusion climate on the enhancement of sport employees’ CQ can vary depending on the level of personal-organizational (P-O) fit. P–O fit is characterized as an individual’s compatibility with organizational values, systems, and climates (Kristof, 1996). In sport organizations, P–O fit has been highlighted as a means of leveraging employees’ affective commitment (Oja et al., 2019), reduced turnover intention (Kim et al., 2007), and psychological capital (Kim et al., 2017). For example, when sport employees share similar values with their organizations, particularly in prioritizing innovation, they are more likely to actively seek out and utilize up-to-date technologies, as well as willingly design trendier marketing campaigns. In such a working environment, are more inclined to engage in open discussions of new ideas and share diverse perspectives with other colleagues.

Proposition 6.

P-O fit enhances the relationship between organizational-level antecedents (e.g. innovativeness, diversity climate) and the CQ of sport employees.

Direct outcomes of CQ

Numerous business and management studies have identified various outcomes of CQ (Ang and Van Dyne, 2015). In the CQ-SE framework, we consider the direct outcomes of CQ. As a first direct outcome of CQ, cross-cultural adaptation is the process in which individuals aim to establish a stable, reciprocal, and functional relationship with the new cultural environment (Kim, 2012). Regardless of the level of sports, sport organizations have their own distinct cultures and preferred traditions (Smith et al., 2017). The high turnover across sport industries elevates the significance of cross-cultural adaptation (Weight et al., 2021).

Each component of the CQ construct is positively related to cross-cultural adaptation in various settings such as work, education, and daily life (Lin et al., 2012). For example, cognitive CQ is salient in cross-cultural adaptation at work by making informed decisions with a greater understanding of cross-cultural differences. Additionally, metacognitive CQ enables employees to employ methods including self-monitoring and strategic learning to understand newly encountered circumstances (Lin et al., 2012).

Proposition 7a.

Enhanced CQ will improve sport employees’ cross-cultural adaptation by enabling them to establish functional relationships within diverse cultural environments.

Second, communication effectiveness is one of the desired attributes in exchanging information among stakeholders in the sport industry. Employees with higher CQ can bridge cultural gaps, establish rapport, and foster mutual respect (Bücker et al., 2014). For example, sport employees with enhanced CQ can proficiently employ appropriate non-verbal cues and consciously adjust their communication style during both intra-departmental and inter-departmental interactions. This becomes particularly crucial when dealing with culturally diverse groups, such as attending international sporting events, where it becomes imperative for sport employees to comprehend and value each group’s cultural background.

Proposition 7b.

Sport employees with high CQ experience improved communication effectiveness by effectively bridging cultural gaps and fostering mutual respect in diverse environments.

Third, sports employee CQ can significantly contribute to the development of their Psychological Capital (PsyCap), which encompasses an individual’s positive psychological development in the workplace (Luthans et al., 2015). In the sport industry, which highly values innovation and well-being, PsyCap has been introduced and applied to various segments of sport stakeholders, including intercollegiate sport employees (Kim et al., 2017), non-profit sport employees (Hazzaa et al., 2024), and even referees (Kim et al., 2022). To promote personal growth and favorable employee outcomes, Kim et al. (2023a, b) expanded the traditional PsyCap, which comprises four psychological resource capacities—hope, efficacy, resilience, and optimism—by incorporating authenticity at work. These sport employees’ capacities can be developed by enhancing their CQ levels. For example, a high behavioral CQ can enhance sport employees’ resilience, allowing them to learn from and overcome cross-cultural challenges. Similarly, a rich cognitive CQ nurtures optimism by cultivating an open-minded and positive attitude in cross-cultural interactions (Afsar et al., 2020).

Proposition 7c.

High CQ in sport employees enhances their PsyCap, fostering greater resilience, optimism, and overall psychological well-being in the workplace.

Intra-organization outcomes

Along with direct CQ outcomes, our CQ-SE framework encompasses expanded work-related outcomes at multiple levels. Foremost, at the individual level, job satisfaction among sport employees has been recognized as a key organizational behavior outcome across different sport sectors, including professional sports, collegiate sports, and coaching staff (e.g. Dixon and Warner, 2010; Kim et al., 2019a, b). Regarding one of the direct outcomes of CQ, sport employees PsyCap has been empirically tested and confirmed to increase their job satisfaction by experiencing elevated confidence with assigned tasks in the workplace (Kim et al., 2019a, b). In addition, through cross-cultural adaptations, sport employees can develop seamless collaboration skills when working with other colleagues from diverse cultural backgrounds, ultimately enhancing their job satisfaction levels. Furthermore, we propose job performance as another individual level outcome in the framework. Specifically, adaptive employees who excel in global work settings demonstrate high levels of job performance due to their proficiency in cross-cultural collaborations (Hinds et al., 2011). Moreover, effective communicators among sport employees are likely to exhibit enhanced task completion, problem-solving, and teamwork, positively influencing job performance (Abbas et al., 2014).

Proposition 8a.

Enhanced CQ in sport employees leads to increased job satisfaction by fostering confidence and facilitating effective collaboration in diverse work environments.

Proposition 8b.

High CQ improves sport employees’ job performance through enhanced communication skills, task completion, and teamwork in multicultural settings.

At the team level, we anticipate that multicultural team functioning will be a representative outcome in the framework. In contemporary sport organizations, where the demographics of sport employees are becoming more varied, one of the desired outcomes is effective and harmonious teamwork (Paradis and Martin, 2012). This is exemplified by the seamless collaboration within multinational football team consisting of not just players but coaches, medical teams, and administrative personnel, all of whom should work together effectively. Higher CQ among team members fosters better communication and understanding, mitigating cultural misunderstandings before they escalate into conflicts.

Proposition 9.

Improved team inclusivity and cohesion resulting from higher CQ leads to enhanced multicultural team functioning in sport organizations.

At the organizational level, CQ is expected to influence three key outcomes: organizational culture, institutional change, and organizational effectiveness. Providing a positive and supportive organizational culture is essential for the harmonious management of sports organizations (MacIntosh and Doherty, 2010). Among the three direct outcomes of CQ, communication effectiveness would be the most prominent factor in sharing an organizational culture. An employee with a higher CQ and good communication skills can ensure diverse cultural practices are respected and integrated, reinforcing a culture of inclusivity and mutual respect. When employees communicate effectively within the organization, they can better align with common values and interests (Hoye et al., 2018).

Proposition 10a.

Higher CQ in sport employees fosters a positive organizational culture by enhancing communication effectiveness and promoting inclusivity.

The communication effectiveness of sports employees is also crucial for facilitating institutional change (Cornelissen et al., 2015). Effective communication enables sport employees to bridge cultural gaps, ensuring that diverse perspectives are understood and integrated during change initiatives. This capability is particularly significant in the dynamic sports industry, where organizations required adapt to global shifts and emerging trends. For example, during the rebranding of a global sport franchise, employees with high CQ can facilitate the alignment of new values and practices across different cultural contexts, ensuring a smooth transition. Cooperative interaction and communication among individual actors are requisites for the seamless progression through the six stages of institutional change (Greenwood et al., 2002).

Proposition 10b.

Effective communication, driven by high CQ, facilitates institutional change in sport organizations by bridging cultural gaps and integrating diverse perspectives.

Moreover, the augmentation of employees’ PsyCap can contribute to increasing organizational effectiveness on individual, group, and organizational levels (Luthans et al., 2015). In the context of sports, Kim et al. (2017) maintained that the PsyCap levels of sports employees play a pivotal role in influencing their job satisfaction, performance, and organizational citizenship behaviors. For example, in a collegiate athletic department, where staff and coaches work together to support student-athletes, strong PsyCap can lead to greater resilience during the pressures of a competitive season, enhanced collaboration among departments, and a more supportive environment for student-athletes. These outcomes contribute to the overall effectiveness of the athletic department by ensuring that staff are motivated, high-performing, and capable of adapting to the unique challenges of collegiate sports.

Proposition 10c.

Higher PsyCap among sport employees, enhanced by CQ, leads to increased organizational effectiveness by improving job satisfaction, performance, and collaboration.

Anticipated benefits for stakeholders in the sport settings

First, we anticipate that stakeholders will experience heightened cultural awareness through experiencing sport services. Sports organizations with employees who possess high levels of CQ are likely to offer more inclusive and integrated services. For example, in professional sport organizations, an event management team comprising employees with high CQ would excel in organizing and operating cultural celebration night events during the home games for their fans. Major League Soccer teams host diversity and inclusion themed night events (e.g. Retro Night, Pride Night, and Hispanic Heritage Night) to raise cultural awareness among fans and cultivate community building. For example, Hispanic Heritage Night celebrate Latin American contributions to the sport through themed music, food, merchandize, and entertainment (Houston Dynamo FC, 2024). In this case, as fans learn about diverse backgrounds and gain cultural insights, their cultural awareness is expected to increase.

Second, another anticipated benefit of sport services for stakeholders is enhanced social well-being. Social well-being is achieved when individuals experience a sense of belonging and support from their social connections (Hagerty et al., 1996). In various sporting settings, social well-being has been considered a desirable outcome of sport consumption through social integration and acceptance (Inoue et al., 2022; Kim and Kim, 2020). In community sports, personalized activities help children with disabilities and their parents feel cared for and connected. These efforts and services can facilitate inclusion and prevent social isolation, ultimately enhancing their social well-being.

Third, the final anticipated benefit is a reduction in ethnocentrism among stakeholders in sport contexts. Ethnocentrism involves favoring the in-group as superior to out-groups, and its role in promoting cultural integration has been emphasized in various sport fields (Doherty and Chelladurai, 1999). For example, when the general manager envisions unity and equality, the executives and directors of sub-departments can encourage their employees to design equity-focused campaigns for their club fans. To foster a harmonious atmosphere in providing sport products and services, it is crucial for sport employees to promote inclusivity and reduce ethnocentrism among diverse stakeholders.

In the context of sport organizations in the public sector, community well-being and accessibility are the two anticipated benefits recipients can experience from the services (Skinner et al., 2008; Zhou and Kaplanidou, 2018), comprised of governmental entities at the local, state, and national levels (e.g. park and recreation departments). For example, the director of a community sport center with cross-cultural adaptability and effective communication skills enhances the chance of providing inclusive and accessible sporting events to residents, promoting community well-being and accessibility.

The non-profit/voluntary sector within the sport industry is characterized by the significant involvement of volunteers in service delivery and decision-making across all levels (Hoye et al., 2018). Non-profit organizations strategically recruit culturally diverse volunteers to ensure effective communication with attendees. For example, adhering to the “one big team” principle, the Paris 2024 Summer Olympic Games organizing committee enlisted over 45,000 volunteers with diverse backgrounds (Paris 2024, 2023). Therefore, non-profit sport organizations can connect individuals and entities from various cultures and nations through hosting sporting events, potentially promoting a perception of fairness, and cultivating a global mindset among participants.

As the number of multinational sport organizations increases, it is crucial to employ diverse talents in physical and virtual contexts to understand and penetrate various market niches (Taylor et al., 2015). Socially engaged sport employees with a better understanding of their target fan base from diverse backgrounds can deliver high-quality services that are more appropriate and suited to the fans, enhancing team pride among them. Furthermore, stakeholders who are content with the service are more likely to become brand advocates and display increased campaign participation, such as attending games, buying merchandise, and promoting the team on social media.

Discussion

We introduced the CQ-SE framework for valuing sport employees’ CQ in the contemporary sport industry, covering antecedents to outcomes across different levels. Recognizing CQ as an essential organizational capability (Ang et al., 2007), we detailed how its four sub-constructs, cognitive, meta-cognitive, motivational, and behavioral, apply to sport employees, supported by practical examples. Unlike previous research focusing on organizational climate and leadership, our framework emphasizes the individual capability of CQ as a key factor in fostering inclusivity and diversity in sport organizations. In outlining the propositions in the framework, we accounted for sport-specific variables (e.g. business trip frequency) and how enhancing CQ contributes to sport organizations’ success.

Theoretical advancement

This study significantly contributes to the realms of organizational culture and human resource management in sport. First, this study is one of the initial endeavors to implement CQ in sport management, elucidating how to cultivate this competency in contemporary organizations. Few sport management studies have recently unveiled the developmental capabilities of sport employees such as EQ (Paek et al., 2022) and grit (Kim et al., 2023a, b). However, there remains a paucity of research into individual capabilities that could potentially mitigate issues related to diversity and inclusion within these organizations. We also provided examples of the four CQ sub-constructs and included predictors and sport-specific factors (e.g. business trip frequency) in the conceptual framework. Consequently, the application of CQ to sport employees offers an alternative avenue to foster greater inclusivity and diversity in sport organizations through by enhancing the levels of CQ among their workforces.

Second, in our endeavor to explore the direct influences of sport employees’ CQ, we highlight preferred organizational behavior outcomes in the contemporary sport industry. Research in sport management has been limited in addressing ways to enhance sport employees’ cultural adaptation, communication effectiveness, and PsyCap levels. Scholars have consistently underscored the significance of leadership and organizational climate in enhancing individual, team, and organizational performance (Orr and Inoue, 2019; Welty Peachey et al., 2015). By recognizing the pivotal role of CQ, we introduced culture-related outcomes (i.e. cultural adaption, multicultural team functioning) alongside conventional organizational outcomes like job engagement and performance. Overall, this conceptual framework enriches the existing research in sport management by illustrating how sport organizations can leverage sport employees’ CQ to ultimately benefit their sports employees, work units, and organizations.

Practical implications

The proposed conceptual framework presents practical implications for leaders and employees in sport organizations valuing diverse social and cultural differences in globalized contexts. First, it is imperative for human resource managers in sport organizations to recognize the significance of nurturing sport employees’ CQ. From hiring to training development specific to the sports industry, it is crucial to respect diverse backgrounds and experiences, as these individuals directly serve stakeholders and deliver sporting events. These initiatives may encompass the provision of increased opportunities for international business trips and involvement in multicultural projects designed to expose employees to different cultures, ultimately increasing their CQ. Additionally, to fully maximize the potential impact of CQ, it is advisable for practitioners in sport organizations to assess employees’ CQ both qualitatively and quantitatively over the years. Such evaluations can prove invaluable in the formulation of a comprehensive strategic managerial framework, aimed at cultivating a more inclusive environment within sport organizations.

Second, CQ is essential in sport management particularly for sport marketers to develop culturally sensitive and effective campaigns in diverse markets. For example, the Premier League tailors its glocalization marketing to resonate with diverse cultural groups across America, Asia, and Africa (Giulianotti and Robertson, 2004; Ludvigsen, 2020), while Major League Baseball focuses more on a localized American audience but is expanding globally, particularly in Latin America and Asia (Klein, 2006). CQ enables marketers in these leagues to craft campaigns that respect cultural norms and effectively promote the sport, whether through targeted social media, culturally relevant merchandising, or localized community engagement (e.g. Ratten, 2016). By understanding and adapting to cultural nuances, sport marketers can enhance brand loyalty and consumer engagement globally.

Third, the development of sport employees’ CQ holds significant potential, not only within their work units and organizations but also for various stakeholders across distinct sport sectors (i.e. public, non-profit/voluntary, professional/commercial sectors: Hoye et al., 2018). In the public sector, where the aim is to meet the diverse needs of local residents, sport practitioners are required to have effective communication skills and cultural awareness in providing sport and recreational services. Through the enhancement of CQ, their abilities can enhance accessibility and foster community well-being. In the non-profit/voluntary sector, sport organizations are tasked with organizing and providing inclusive and accessible mega-sporting events. Serving as a platform for connecting individuals and entities from diverse cultural backgrounds, these events allow attendees and viewers to promote perceptions of fairness and foster a global mindset. In the professional/commercial sector, multinational sports organizations seek to expand their global reach and attract new fans (Maguire and Falcous, 2010). Particularly, sport communication practitioners who can engage with potential fans in multiple languages and possess a better understanding of cultural differences can be instrumental in targeting more diverse groups and broadening their fan base.

Empirical application in future research

We encourage sport management researchers to prioritize the empirical validation and reliability assessment of the CQ measurements and apply them to sport employees. After exploring established psychometric measurements of CQ (e.g. Alon et al., 2018; Ang et al., 2007; Ang and Van Dyne, 2015), it is essential to identify the most suitable scale to test relationships proposed in the conceptual framework. For example, the 20-item CQ scale (CQS) has been widely employed as the primary tool to assess employees’ CQ (Ang et al., 2007). Afterward, Ang and Van Dyne (2015) introduced a concise 9-item mini-CQS to efficiently measure the four CQ sub-constructs. More recently, Alon et al. (2018) developed an 18-item set of self-reported questions of CQ, but these items were specifically designed for business settings. Therefore, depending on the research questions and purposes, it is necessary to review existing scales and select the most suitable one for future research in sport management.

We urge scholars to empirically test the proposed relationships in the CQ-SE framework. As we have incorporated predictors and moderators by considering the unique features of sport industry, it would be meaningful to determine which variables and contexts positively influence sport employees’ CQ. For example, the impacts of business trip frequency between the individual predictors and sport employees’ CQ may vary across different sport sectors and organizational types. Furthermore, to test multiple paths simultaneously, one viable statistical method is to utilize structural equation modeling. Given that the CQ-SE framework encompasses various outcomes, it is suggested to statistically examine the mediating roles of direct outcomes between sport employees’ CQ and potential outcomes at different levels.

It is crucial to explore how they perceive and interact within multicultural and globalized sport organizations. This can be achieved through in-depth interviews or focus group observations involving employees who interact with diverse stakeholders. For example, Chief of Experience Officers (CXO) in professional sport organizations are responsible for enhancing fan engagement. Future researchers can conduct in-depth interviews to explore how CXOs leverage their CQ to cultivate a customer-centric culture and foster inclusivity in stadiums. The CQ-SE framework highlights the need for further research to provide valuable narratives and insights into the experiences of sport employees.

Limitations and future research

To embrace cultural diversity in sport workplaces, we have proposed the CQ-SE framework to leverage CQ in enhancing sport employees’ employee competencies, work unit effectiveness, and organizational performance. This research expands the sport management literature by introducing the pivotal role of CQ in the sport industry. In the CQ-SE framework, we have detailed the antecedents, moderators, and outcomes of sport employees’ CQ at three distinct levels: individual, team, and organization. In conclusion, this suggested framework advances the field of sport management by delineating the application of sport employees’ CQ in mitigating cultural insensitivity in interconnected and culturally diverse global contexts. Future research could examine the application of the CQ-SE framework in diverse cultural contexts, such as the United States, where population and industry diversity may produce varying results. Additionally, empirical studies across individual, team, and organizational levels could test the framework to identify variations in CQ development and outcomes.

Figures

Figure 1

Conceptual framework for sport employees’ CQ