A comparison of low-cost housing units for varying climatic regions in South Africa: a knowledge management approach

Abstract

Purpose

One of the greatest challenges faced by the 1994 post-apartheid government in South Africa is the housing problem that has persisted for almost 30 years into democracy. Innovation in research and practice is required to address this problem. This paper aims to discuss the aforementioned objective.

Design/methodology/approach

This paper presents an argument for housing knowledge management as one part of a much larger system of housing provision and critically compares information variations on one hypothetical, low-cost housing unit adapted for varying climatic regions. It aims to enquire if there is an overlap in information.

Findings

The findings do confirm a noteworthy overlap in the information of the varying units. Therefore, knowledge management of the information would prove effective and may contribute in part to housing provision.

Research limitations/implications

The study is limited to assessing the information changes made to the contract documentation of the housing unit.

Social implications

The paper argues that knowledge management of this overlapping information could impact housing provision by providing knowledge power to those affected by the housing problem.

Originality/value

The findings are a unique perspective presented through a knowledge management lens. In addition, the said knowledge management lens provides a platform to raise additional questions. When seeking answers to these questions, it is expected that research sub-themes would be identified focussing further research studies towards finding answers.

Citation

van Tonder, F. and Rwelamila, P.D. (2024), "A comparison of low-cost housing units for varying climatic regions in South Africa: a knowledge management approach", Smart and Sustainable Built Environment, Vol. 13 No. 5, pp. 1310-1329. https://doi.org/10.1108/SASBE-11-2022-0237

1. Introduction

The housing problem in South Africa persists, with government provisions not meeting housing needs. This paper presents data on low-cost housing and how knowledge management would contribute to addressing the housing problem. Knowledge management could shift the government's housing focus from provision to facilitation.

The construction industry is likely to be affected by the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR) (Frey and Osborne, 2013) along with industries worldwide (Kim, 2019; World Economic Forum, 2016). Knowledge management of information is a precursor for automation and is associated with digitisation and the 4IR. The paper heeds the call of the World Economic Forum (2020) for tangible evidence and reliable information pertaining to the 4IR in all industries.

The research findings indicate a noteworthy overlap in the information presented in the five housing unit variations. Therefore, knowledge management as one part of the larger system of housing provision may contribute to the effectiveness of the provision of housing. Data are presented in the form of contract documentation that comprises architectural drawings and outline specifications of variations on one hypothetical low-cost housing unit for varying climatic regions.

Housing information is often inaccessible to those affected by the housing problem. An argument for knowledge management of contract documentation providing knowledge power to those affected by the housing problem forms the core of the study. This may facilitate the knowledge management cycle and provide for community involvement. The focus of this paper is thus concerned with providing knowledge power through knowledge management to those affected by the housing problem. Nevertheless, before an overlap in information and therefore an economic efficiency can be claimed to result from less information regeneration and more reuse of information, the overlap must be argued and tested.

Consequently, a comparison of the contract documentation information concerning variations of a hypothetical, low-cost housing unit across varying climatic regions was undertaken. A discussion of the data analysis findings and recommendations for further research based on salient questions concludes the paper.

2. Literature review

2.1 South African housing problem

Housing was identified as one of the greatest challenges faced by the 1994 post-apartheid South African government (Department of Housing, 1994). The government housing provision has been efficient in numbers, with 3.3 million low-cost housing units built (Marutlulle, 2021). However, the housing delivered has proven ineffective, with many people still accommodated in informal housing, informal settlements and slums (Gilbert, 2004). Approximately 5.2 million people live in 1.3 million households in informal settlements in metro areas (Dintsi et al., 2020). In 2010, the housing provision backlog was 2.1 million (Phago, 2010) and in 2022 is 2.7 million (Sisulu, 2020). According to the information above, it is evident that the housing problem is mounting.

2.2 Factors contributing to the housing problem

Contributing factors include corruption and mismanagement; houses too small for occupation; substandard material choices and artisanship; poor location of housing projects; lack of involvement by stakeholders and beneficiaries of the housing projects; urbanisation; and unemployment (Manomano et al., 2016).

2.3 Knowledge management and knowledge power

Knowledge management is the acquisition, creation, sharing and transfer of information (Pinho et al., 2012). In this context, the goal of managing knowledge is to improve effective housing quality and delivery by providing the right information to the right people at the right time (Salzano et al., 2016).

Knowledge power is power vested in accessing and controlling unique information necessary for decision-making (Burnes, 2014). Architectural knowledge is often embargoed: sometimes for profit and or generated and distributed solely by those qualified in the discipline.

2.4 Community involvement

In the absence of accurate information, those who lack knowledge power are disadvantaged (Mafukidze and Hoosen, 2009, p. 393) and this affects the success of community participation in housing provision. International legislation supporting community participation in housing provision, such as the United Nations Habitat Agenda (Huchzermeyer, 2003) had little impact and was seen to view government provision negatively (Williams, 2006). This compounded with the government provision of housing often associated with government corruption (Jeffery, 2010, p. 354).

Examples of successful community involvement may be found in the seminal work of Aule et al. (2020), Aigbavboa and Thwala (2011), Andani (2017), Archer (2012) and Chang et al. (2015). These examples are pertinent to achieving Sustainable Development Goal 11: that people must have safe, adequate and affordable housing with basic services as well as that slums must be upgraded. Knowledge power may play a part in community involvement in housing provision.

2.5 Contract documentation

Architectural information employed as an instruction to build a specific building usually includes draughted and scaled architectural drawings. Architectural drawings include construction technology, material use and size information.

A project specification frequently forms part of contract documentation. For example, a project specification for Stage 3 of the South African Council for the Architectural Profession (SACAP) Board Notice 91 (2020), Stages of Work for Architectural Projects, is called an outline specification. An outline specification comprises work sections with building systems grouped by artisanship under the applicable work section. In South Africa, the Logical Arrangement of Work Sections (LAWS) is used, which is derived from the Common Arrangements of Works Sections (CAWS) used in the United Kingdom (Allott, 1998). Architectural drawings and outline specifications are the contract documentation of an architectural proposal.

2.6 Climatic regions of South Africa

A house envelope should respond to its climatic region (Napier, 2000). Minor changes may contribute to unit variations that respond better to the environment. South Africa has nine climatic regions (Figure 1).

The nine climatic regions remain largely the same between Napier (2000, pp. 9.3.1) and Janse van Rensburg et al. (2019, p. 4) with minor differences. The authors have applied the regions as follows:

1. Subtropical plateau (1) region categorised by cool to hot summers (15–27 °C), moderate winter days and cold to very cold winter night temperatures (7–12 °C). Comparatively dry and precipitation occurs mostly in summer (Napier, 2000, p. 9.4). Relative humidity is less than 30%.

2. Desert (2) region categorised by moderate to hot summers (15–25 °C) and cold to very cold winter temperatures (less than 7–10 °C). Precipitation is low and mostly in winter (Napier, 2000, p. 9.9). Some strong wind gusts occur inland to the north (Kruger et al., 2013). Relative humidity is less than 30% inland and more than 70% at the coast.

3. Mediterranean (3) region categorised by warm to hot summers (20–23 °C), moderate winter days and cold to very cold winter temperatures (7–10 °C). Precipitation occurs from prolonged cold and wet spells in the winter (Napier, 2000, p. 9.6). Strong wind gusts occur (Kruger et al., 2013). Relative humidity is 50% inland and more than 70% at the coast.

4. Semi-arid plateau (4) region categorised by warm to hot summers (20–27 °C) and cold to very cold winter temperatures (7–12 °C). Precipitation is low and occurs mostly in the summer (Napier, 2000, p. 9.7). In some areas, strong wind gusts occur (Kruger et al., 2013). Relative humidity is less than 30% in the north and more than 50% in the south.

5. Moderate coast (5) categorised by warm to hot summers (20–23 °C) and moderate winter temperatures (12–17 °C). Precipitation occurs all year round (Napier, 2000, p. 9.7). Relative humidity is 60% to more than 70%.

6. Moderate eastern plateau (6) region categorised by warm to hot summers (20–25 °C), moderate winter days and cold to very cold winter night temperatures (10–15 °C). Precipitation occurs from thunderstorms (Napier, 2000, p. 9.8) and cloudbursts. Relative humidity is 30–50%.

7. Escarpment (7) region categorised by warm to hot summers (20–25 °C), moderate winter days and cold to very cold winter night temperatures (7–12 °C). Precipitation occurs from high rainfalls with thunderstorms that are often prolonged (Napier, 2000, p. 9.9). Diurnal shifts in wind direction occur in this region (Garstang et al., 1987) and strong wind gusts occur (Kruger et al., 2013). Relative humidity is 50–60%.

8. Subtropical coast (8) region categorised by warm to hot summers (20–25 °C) and moderate to warm winter temperatures (15–20 °C). Precipitation occurs from thunderstorms, sometimes with hail and is often prolonged (Napier, 2000, p. 9.9). Strong wind gusts occur (Kruger et al., 2013). Relative humidity is more than 70%.

9. Subtropical lowveld (9) region categorised by hot summers (25–27 °C) and moderate to warm winter temperatures (15–20 °C). Lower precipitation occurs all year round (Napier, 2000, p. 9.10). Relative humidity is more than 70%.

2.7 Tectonic

In the architectural context, tectonic refers to one of three sources of legitimacy for architecture. Tectonic refers to the art and science of construction and the artistic expression of construction through materials and construction methods (Porter, 2004). For this paper, visual tectonics refers to how a building or group of buildings reads visually and the performance of the architecture (van Tonder, 2022a). The said other two sources of legitimacy are topos (referring to the site) and typos (referring to type) (Frampton, 1995).

The envelope or tectonic of a building must consider the external weather qualities to achieve interior comfort (Napier, 2000) and energy use, mitigating the climate emergency. Considering the carbon footprint of a building, approximately 10% of annual CO₂ emissions are due to the materials and construction of the buildings and approximately 28% of annual CO₂ emissions are due to the operations of the buildings (United Nations Environment Programme, 2021, p. 40). Substandard material choices and artisanship could have far-reaching effects on the liveability and energy use of low-cost housing units. This paper proposes variations in the building envelope or technology tectonic (van Tonder, 2022a) appropriate to each climatic region.

3. Research methodology

3.1 Research approach and design

This paper aims to generate data for knowledge management assessment. To enquire whether there is a substantial overlap in contract documentation information through critically comparing variations in one hypothetical low-cost housing unit adapted for the varying climatic regions.

3.2 Low-cost housing unit adjustments

Adjustments were made to the ‘typical output from housing cost model’ or the ‘TCM unit’, as published by the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) (Schlotfeldt, 2000, p. F-3). The TCM unit (left of Figure 2) was adjusted to propose a single benchmark unit (UT1) (right of Figure 2).

UT1 benchmark unit's characteristics:

1. Rectangular with a north-south orientation, and thus a long, thin dwelling (Alexander, 1977, p. 535)

2. Front door and a back door for intimacy gradient, dignity and safety

3. Two small bedrooms or bed clusters (Alexander, 1977, p. 871) that double as private online work or study spaces during the day

4. Dual-aspect windows in each room facilitate cross ventilation (Napier, 2000, p. 5.5) and eyes on the street

5. Parent's realm and children's realm on opposing sides of the house (Alexander, 1977, p. 384)

6. Floor finishes, facias, barges, gutters and downpipes added

7. Within 40m², the minimum size for a government-subsidised residential unit (Department of Human Settlements, 2009).

8. Complies with SANS 10400 (2012).

3.3 Research limitations

This study only employs one simple, commonly used form of a low-cost housing unit: a rectangular, detached and single-storey house. Materials most used in low-cost housing are clay-brick walls, concrete systems and materials, steel windows and doors and sheet metal roofs on standard timber trusses. SANS 10400 (2012) focusses on these materials.

This study uses one visual tectonic to compare the technology tectonics for the varying climatic regions. The variations to the unit type were guided by a decision tree with minimal changes to the technology tectonic (Figure 3). The decision sequence was numbered Decisions 1 (D1) to 4 (D4). A decision tree acts as a decision support tool with nodes that demarcate variables (Kamiński et al., 2017). A decision tree in which decisions in the architectural process become nodes is argued as the possible first step towards managing knowledge and eventually automating architecture (van Tonder and Brink, 2022).

Climatic response details are required, including wall type, glazing type, size and position as well as variations in roof insulation or roof material. The r-value of the walls and roofs and the u-value of the glazing are not included in this study. Nor are bioclimatic design and passive design theories, which may further contextualise and guide the discussion.

Proposals that reflect the context must be developed. Considerations include local culture and indigenous thinking, integration into wards, neighbourhoods and communities, as well as amenities, services and opportunities when reaching high density.

4. Findings and discussion

4.1 Findings

4.1.1 Variations to unit type 1

As per Figure 1, Table 1 lists the nine climatic regions of South Africa and the proposed unit type assigned to that region.

The technology tectonic associated with each of the climatic regions is proposed based on the following rationales:

1. Subtropical plateau (1) region, a unit type (UT1) with a solid brick wall and gable-pitched roof.

2. Desert (2) region, a unit type (UT3) with a solid brick wall with insulation lining the interior and a gable-pitched roof with a parapet. Insulation is added for cold winter temperatures. A gable parapet is added for additional structural integrity from wind, as parapets reduce peak wind pressures (Aly and da Fonseca Yousef, 202, p. 14; Krishna, 1995, p. 394).

3. Mediterranean (3) region, a unit type (UT5) with a cavity brick wall with insulation and a gable-pitched roof with a parapet. Cavity brick wall with insulation change is for the cold winter temperatures and prolonged precipitation. The gable parapet is added for additional structural integrity from wind.

4. Semi-arid plateau (4) region, a unit type (UT3) with a solid brick wall with insulation lining to interior and a gable-pitched roof with a parapet. Insulation is added for cold winter temperatures and the gable parapet is added for additional structural integrity from wind.

5. Moderate coast (5) region, a unit type (UT4) with a cavity brick wall with insulation and a gable-pitched roof. Cavity brick wall with insulation change is for prolonged precipitation.

6. Moderate eastern plateau (6) region, a unit type (UT1) with a solid brick wall and a gable-pitched roof.

7. Escarpment (7) region, a unit type (UT2) with a solid brick wall and gable-pitched roof with a parapet. A gable parapet is added for additional structural integrity from wind.

8. Subtropical coast (8) region, a unit type (UT4) with a cavity brick wall with insulation and a gable-pitched roof. Cavity brick wall with insulation change is for prolonged precipitation.

9. Subtropical lowveld (9) region: a unit type (UT1) with a solid brick wall and gable-pitched roof.

4.1.2 Plan and section architectural drawings

The critical comparison of the contract documentation information required the authors to draught, detail and draw up dimensions, and specify unit variations for various climatic regions. The computer-aided draughting (CAD) drawings were limited to a plan and section for each variation. The architectural drawings of the units or data generated for the paper address the substandard material choices and artisanship noted by Manomano et al. (2016) by presenting contract documentation of units that comply with SANS 10400 (2012).

UT1 was used as the benchmark and was draughted first. As per Table 2 and Figures 4–8 (the contract documentation of each unit type), many of the technology tectonic characteristics of UT1 could be reused for UT2 to UT5.

Changes to the plan and section architectural drawings from UT1 are highlighted with a red border on UT2 to UT5. Likewise, information changes for system references, annotations and dimensions from UT1 are highlighted in red on UT2 to UT5.

As per Figure 3: for UT2, the plan remained the same as UT1, with only the indicative line of the roof above changing to accommodate the parapet wall. On section, changes were only made to the roof from the wall plate height upwards for UT2, UT3 and UT5, with the addition of a parapet in elevation.

On plan, UT3 had substantial changes: thermal insulation was added to the interior of the external walls. On section, thermal insulation was also added under the concrete surface bed. However, the gable-pitched roof with parapet wall information was taken as is from UT2, with No additional draughting required.

For UT4 and UT5: a cavity wall construction replaced the solid wall construction on plan and on section. Only the plan for UT4 required draughting amendments. For UT5, the plan remained the same as UT4, with only the indicative line of the roof above changing to accommodate the parapet wall. For UT4 and UT5 on section, the previously draughted insulated surface bed was taken from UT5. On section, the wall structure was amended to include the cavity brick wall with insulation. However, this was only amended once for UT4 and then reused for UT5.

The overall dimensions on plan and on section remained the same for all five unit variations. This was achieved by ensuring that wall construction changes occurred inward. Therefore, should the elevations of the units have formed part of the study, an even greater similarity in architectural drawings and annotation would be noted.

UT1 was used as the benchmark for the outline specification and was annotated first. An annotation on a contract documentation architectural drawing is typically placed as a description for each building system. An example would be Clay brick solid wall. The system refers to the specification document that is also added if the project has a project specification. The annotation then becomes a systems reference and annotation and reads, for example, H10 101 Clay brick solid wall with H10 101 being the clause number in the outline specification document included in the work section H10 Brickwork.

The first time a systems reference and annotation was placed for this paper, it was written in full with the systems reference and annotation (for example, H10 101 Clay brick solid wall). Thereafter, with additional drawings, only the systems reference was placed on the drawing (for example, H10 101). The systems references added from UT1 in Figure 4 are highlighted in red on UT2 to UT5 in Figures 5–8.

A noteworthy overlap in information could be inferred when considering the red on the plan and section architectural drawings of each of the units in Figures 4–8.

4.1.3 Outline specification

As per the architectural drawings of the units, a noteworthy overlap in information is visible when considering the work sections of the outline specification documents of the units, as per Table 3.

In order to perform a critical comparison, it was necessary to list each building system indicated on the plan and section architectural drawings of each unit. See Table 3 for each unit's systems reference and annotation with the changes made or system references added from UT1 in red for UT2 to UT5.

Additional systems were added in red for alterations to the technology tectonic in UT2 to UT5. These 12 systems are added in red. These red systems have a combined use of 26 times for UT2 to UT5.

There are 201 (175 + 26) systems used across the five unit types. Of these, 87% are black ((175/201) × 100), indicating reuse of information and 13% are red ((26/201) × 100), indicating the need to add additional information. Therefore, the inference is made that there is an overlap in information.

Should UT1 be removed from the quantitative assessment, there would be 140 (175–35) systems in black and still 26 systems in red. There were 166 (140 + 26) systems used.

The percentages of reused systems in black and new systems in red would be as follows: 84% are black ((140/166) × 100), indicating reuse of information and 16% are red ((26/166) × 100), indicating the need to add additional information. Therefore, the inference is still made that there is an overlap in information, even after removing the benchmark UT1 from the calculation.

When considering the work section of the outline specification in Table 4, with 15 work sections in black originating from UT1 and No additional work section requirements for UT2 to UT5, then the inference could be made that there is a noteworthy overlap in information.

4.2 Discussion

This paper critically compared some of the information of one hypothetical low-cost housing unit, adapted for the varying climatic regions in South Africa. With the aim of enquiring if there is a substantial overlap in information.

Figures 3–8 indicate the reuse of information in the architectural drawings. The architectural drawings and outline specifications together are the contract documentation of an architectural proposal. Table 1 showed the unit reuse across the climatic regions, Table 2 the technology tectonic reuse, Table 3 the outline specification system information reuse and Table 4 the outline specification work section information reuse.

Knowledge management enhances effectiveness because the reproduction of architectural information is time-consuming and costly. Therefore, the reuse of information results in an exponential growth in the value of the information when the information is reused (van Tonder, 2022b).

The noteworthy overlap in information in the contract documentation and outline specifications of the five units presented indicates that knowledge management is possible and may have a far-reaching impact. Therefore, this paper argues that knowledge management of the contract documentation information of architectural proposals for housing units can contributes to the effectiveness of housing provision. Further effectiveness would be achieved if the knowledge management provided those affected by the housing problem with knowledge power by providing the right information to the right people at the right time and in the right place.

However, it is noted that knowledge management as a system that includes the steps of acquisition, creation, sharing and transfer of information will only be effective if the knowledge acquired and created is also shared and transferred. Further research on the problem that is the system of housing provision in South Africa must be done.

5. Recommendations for further research

This paper presents data on knowledge management, which is one part of a much larger housing provision system. Knowledge management can contribute to addressing short fallings in the system of housing provision. However, limited academic research is available on knowledge management for the low-cost housing sector in South Africa. This lacuna in research must be addressed.

The subsequent questions are, Where to start? What information and knowledge should be acquired, created, shared and transferred to address the housing problem? To what detail can climatic response detail variations be included? How will the environment affect the knowledge management of technology tectonics? Can knowledge management include bioclimatic design, passive design, biophilia, biomimicry and ultimately systems disruptions towards greater climate emergency resilience and responses? Should this information also include visual tectonics that will respond more appropriately to the environment in which the unit is placed? How to better reflect and accommodate local culture and indigenous thinking? How would various unit sizes affect knowledge management, and will knowledge management be as effective as in the five unit types presented in this paper? How far can the use of knowledge management for low-cost housing information disseminate? Could knowledge management for low-cost housing aid the required shift from a linear economy to a circular economy, and what would that look like? How would the knowledge management of the adaptation, densification and revitalisation of low-cost housing for resilient communities work? Is it possible for knowledge management to perform the architectural design process required for housing design? Can the knowledge management of units be conceptualised to form wards and neighbourhoods towards achieving higher density? Can knowledge management provide the knowledge power for laypersons or communities to build their own homes in a manner that will mitigate the climate emergency?

These questions potentially strengthen the theme of this paper by inviting further research projects.

6. Conclusion

The data presented in this paper are a small contribution to addressing the large and complex housing problem. This paper critically compared some information from one hypothetical low-cost housing benchmark unit adapted for varying climatic regions.

This paper found there is a substantial overlap in information. The reuse of information in knowledge management is important because the reproduction of architectural information is time-consuming and costly and reuse enhances performance effectiveness. The noteworthy information overlap in the contract documentation and outline specifications of the five units indicates that knowledge management is possible and could have a far-reaching impact when shared.

This paper concludes that knowledge management could contribute to addressing shortcomings in the housing provision system. Knowledge management is a system that includes the steps of acquisition, creation, sharing and transfer of information. Knowledge management would only be effective if the knowledge acquired and created is also shared and transferred. Therefore, in the architectural context, knowledge management is the contract documentation acquired, architectural proposals created and sharing and transfer of the content to those affected by the housing problem. Knowledge management is knowledge power that provides the right information to the right people at the right time and in the right place. Thus, knowledge management through knowledge reuse could contribute to the effectiveness of housing provision.

Figures

Figure 1

A map of South Africa with province borders in white and the nine climatic regions in various colours and numbered

Figure 2

TCM unit (left) and Unit 1 (UT1) (right)

Figure 3

The variations of decision tree from the hypothetical benchmark unit

Figure 4

Hypothetical benchmark Unit Type 1 (UT1) architectural drawings

Figure 5

Unit Type 2 (UT2) architectural drawings

Figure 6

Unit Type 3 (UT3) architectural drawings

Figure 7

Unit Type 4 (UT4) architectural drawings

Figure 8

Unit Type 5 (UT5) architectural drawings

Table 1

Climatic region and unit type assigned

Table 2

Technology tectonic characteristics (in red), the technology tectonic characteristics different from UT1 (in black)

Table 3

System reference and annotation table

Table 4

Work sections table with work section found in the outline specification of UT1 in black and No additional work sections required for UT2 to UT5

Work sections	UT1	UT2	UT3	UT4	UT5
C30 Site clearance/excavation/filling	+	+	+	+	+
F50 In situ concrete construction	+	+	+	+	+
G10 Precast concrete	+	+	+	+	+
H10 Brickwork	+	+	+	+	+
J40 Damp-proofing	+	+	+	+	+
K30 Metal-profiled sheet covering	+	+	+	+	+
L10 Carpentry/timber framing/first fixing	+	+	+	+	+
L22 Timber doors	+	+	+	+	+
M10 Plasterboard ceilings/lining	+	+	+	+	+
N20 Vinyl flooring	+	+	+	+	+
Q21 Steel windows	+	+	+	+	+
R10 Cement-based screeds	+	+	+	+	+
R20 Plaster coatings	+	+	+	+	+
S10 Tiling	+	+	+	+	+
X10 Painting finishing	+	+	+	+	+