Abstract
Purpose
Before COVID-19, Kenya was among the countries in sub-Saharan Africa already dealing with high Gender-Based Violence (GBV) issues. Kenya had experienced prior convoluted emergencies and endemics, which had an inordinate impingement on women and girls that heightened their vulnerability to GBV. The Kenyan Ministry of Public Service and Gender reported that in 2020, there was an increase of 36% in GBV cases (Roy et al., 2021). COVID-19 had a devastating effect in rural communities, whereby women were most impacted. This study aims to understand the lessons learned from public leaders in implementing policies that could address GBV through better leadership approaches.
Design/methodology/approach
This is an exploratory-qualitative study in which six participants comprised of policymakers or government representatives that were interviewed in semi-structured interviews.
Findings
The qualitative narratives provided evidence that suggests a complex relationship between the COVID-19 lockdowns and movement restrictions policies and played a direct factor in the rise in GBV in vulnerable populations. The individual country policies and sectoral policies varied in how vulnerable women's needs were addressed, which led to diverse socioeconomic and health consequences.
Originality/value
This research delineates the impacts of the failure of Kenyan leaders to implement gender focused COVID-19 policies and guidelines that considered the physical, mental, violence and the economic impact such emergencies have on women and girls in rural communities.
Keywords
Citation
Ebron, K.T., Andenoro, A.C., Luzynski, C. and Ngunjiri, A. (2024), "Addressing gender-based violence and advancing women in leadership through increased social mobility in rural Kenya", International Journal of Public Leadership, Vol. 20 No. 3/4, pp. 218-236. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJPL-03-2024-0019
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2024, Emerald Publishing Limited
Introduction
Kenya has historically faced high rates of Gender-Based Violence (GBV) (see Appendix for definition), significantly impacting sustainable development and economic growth. Despite recent policy and legal frameworks aimed at deviating from cultural and social norms, COVID-19 (see Appendix for definition) has exacerbated GBV rates. Before the pandemic, 1 in 3 women experienced GBV in their lifetime (The World Bank, 2019). It is important to understand what impacts GBV. GBV hinders progress towards the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and stifles economic mobility (Duvvury et al., 2013). Most incidents occurred during lockdowns with partners (Acosta, 2020). As a lower-middle-income country (World Bank, 2019), Kenya faces significant challenges. The WHO (2021) and UN Women (2022) report that 37% of GBV victims aged 15–49 reside in “least developed” countries, where GBV rates are 13% higher than the global average. In Kenya, the lifetime prevalence of sexual GBV exceeds 40% (KDHS, 2014), inflicting direct and indirect costs on households and impacting the nation's economy.
In an emerging nation like Kenya, a nation that is undertaking economic development and reform programs, several interdependent issues intertwine with gender-based violence (GBV), social and economic mobility, the pandemic, culture (see Appendix for definition), and national policies. GBV has socioeconomic implications. In 2014, Kenya's policymakers produced the National Policy of Prevention and Response to Gender-Based Violence, contradicting the Kenyan Constitution. Just four years prior, the Kenyan Constitution of 2010 had entrenched the patriarchal practices of “personal and customary law,” which legalized and perpetuated gender bias and gender discrimination (Noor Mohammed, 2015). GBV risk factors stem from a complex interplay of individual, relational, community, and societal influences (Okech, 2021; Oliver et al., 2015), with cultural and social norms perpetuating GBV in Kenya's patriarchal society (Small et al., 2022).
In 2017, Kenya, with backing from the International Development Law Organization, an intergovernmental organization, formulated model policies and legislation on sexual and GBV to empower county governments in preventing and safeguarding women and girls (Wangamati et al., 2019). Kenya and the IDLO’s integrated model legislation and leadership within counties throughout Kenya on GBV to protect women and girls and have been hailed as progressive strides toward gender equality and women's political involvement, enforcement hurdles persist due to insufficient commitment to gender equity (Zabus, 2004; Roy et al., 2021), exacerbated by entrenched patriarchal and cultural norms. COVID-19 exposed deficiencies in policy implementation, particularly regarding access to healthcare and essential services, and exacerbated social and economic strains, leading to a surge in GBV cases (Barasa et al., 2021). These discriminatory practices are not solely perpetuated by men; many women also internalize structures of inferiority (Sultana, 2010). In Kenya, the prevalence of Gender-Based Violence (GBV) intertwines with social, economic, and cultural factors, exacerbating its impact on women and girls. Despite policy efforts, entrenched patriarchal norms and the COVID-19 pandemic have led to a surge in GBV cases, hindering progress towards achieving gender equality and sustainable development goals.
GBV and its impact on the sustainable development goals and social mobility
Kenya is one of the countries that pledged agreement to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs serve as a model for peace and prosperity for all people and the planet (Morton et al., 2017). They lay out seventeen urgent areas in which countries must improve to alleviate poverty and social and environmental privations (Salvia et al., 2019). “GBV and its Impact on the SDGs and Social Mobility” serves to underscore the urgency and importance of addressing GBV as a critical component of sustainable development efforts and promoting social mobility for all. For the nation to achieve the SDGs, it must consider a new approach to its policies and strategies concerning eradicating GBV. It must begin to look at the overall health and economic and developmental well-being of society, as GBV is directly linked to seven of the seventeen goals. These seven goals listed below impact economics, development, health, jobs, and education:
#1 No Poverty
#2 Zero Hunger
#3 Good Health
#4 Quality Education
#5 Gender Equality
#8 Decent Work and Economic Growth
#10 Reduced Inequalities
#16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
To pursue a quest to meet the SDGs, the country's social mobility must be the priority. Social mobility is defined as the ability of individuals, families, or groups to have upward mobility and experience a better life than the generations before them (Bertaux and Thompson, 2017). Increased social mobility enhances wealth levels, enabling individuals to secure essential needs such as employment, education, housing, and healthcare, while also affording them a higher standard of living with reduced reliance on mechanical labor. Countries with higher equality ratios tend to have higher social mobility levels (Marginson, 2016). COVID-19 has further challenged Kenya to meet the SDGs with an increase in GBV and the factors that are influenced by it. The COVID-19 crisis is generating significant worries about future social mobility. This is because it has drastically worsened economic and educational inequality, the two key drivers of low social mobility (Major and Machin, 2018). These inequalities are increasingly interdependent, reinforcing each other to determine future social mobility levels.
The inequalities pose a problem for Kenya because it is on a quest to achieve the United Nations SDGs by 2030, in which all seventeen goals are interdependent upon one another to be completed. For Kenya to have a healthy and thriving society, all individuals, families, and groups within their community must be moving towards a better social hierarchy or stratification. Henceforth, women's equity and empowerment must be ingrained in governmental structures and policies (Eden and Wagstaff, 2021). GBV is an act that continues to increase and further oppresses women through domestic violence, economic violence (see Appendix for definition), cultural, and sexual violence (Mackay, 2021). During the pandemic, women-led households lost income, women and girls were sexually exploited and abused, teenage pregnancy increased, FGM rates rose, and many were subjected to early and forced marriage (Pinchoff et al., 2021). Consequently, no matter how many progressive policies were written in the Constitution, they did not prove the government's effectiveness and innovation when the policies were not implemented and enforced. Kenya wants to achieve the SDG goals. However, its policies, laws, and constitutions are lacking because they lack gender-sensitive lenses (Ifejika Speranza and Bikketi, 2018). Notwithstanding, the policymakers and elected officials, who work directly and indirectly on gender issues themselves are not utilizing evidence in policymaking, and in some cases, there is a lack of comprehension of the contextual matters that drive GBV, more so during a pandemic (Harman, 2021; WHO, 2019). The social and cultural norms (see Appendix for definition) need to be re-evaluated and understood from a new perspective whereby leaders, male and female, and society see a system that supports and protects women and women's empowerment and discourages GBV.
Gender-Based Violence (GBV) needs comprehensive attention due to its profound impact on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and social mobility. Addressing GBV requires increased awareness and education, robust and enforceable legal frameworks, accessible healthcare services, economic empowerment programs, strong support systems, multi-sectoral collaboration, and effective monitoring and evaluation. To be more exact, the impact of GBV on SDGs is substantial, perpetuating poverty (SDG 1), undermining health and well-being (SDG 3), disrupting education (SDG 4), hindering gender equality (SDG 5), limiting economic growth (SDG 8), exacerbating inequality (SDG 10), and undermining peace and justice (SDG 16). Addressing these issues is crucial for promoting social mobility and achieving sustainable development.
Need for innovative leadership approaches
Social mobility is the movement of individuals, families, or groups through systems of social stratification (Doob, 2019). Social stratification is a characteristic of societal norms that enforces hierarchical systems of inequity on groups, perpetuating these disparities across generations. Any social movement occurs not only in connection with the emergence of desire but also by overcoming more or less significant barriers (Castles, 2016). The processes that lead to the upward or downward trend of social mobility are economic success, development of education, occupational improvement, societal structure, demographic structure, technology, aspirational level, and the administrative setup of the country (Major and Machin, 2018).
GBV is ingrained in social norms and cultural issues due to societal hierarchies and gender status (Dongmo, 2021), which are deeply embedded in all facets of Kenyan culture. Therefore, governmental authorities must explore transformational leadership approaches to inform and change harmful social practices that violate the rights of women and vulnerable populations, specifically mothers, pregnant women, and girls. These transformational and cross-sector collaboration strategies should also incorporate a humanistic leadership approach, fostering a convergence of self and others (Hermans, 2001; Bryson et al., 2015). This convergence leads to the cultivation of emerging innovation within the social environment, in which human behavior results in cooperative behaviors for the well-being of society as a whole. Humanistic leadership provides opportunities for communities to be ethical, trust others, and have compassion toward one another (Caulfield et al., 2022). It paves the way for commitment and an aligned vision, values, and mission for habitual behaviors. The critical components of humanistic leadership include prioritizing people over self, recognizing the needs of people over profit, and creating a culture of empathy and appreciation among fellow citizens (Fry and Egel, 2021). Additionally, to effectively address poverty, governments must adopt a cross-sector approach, fostering collaboration and shared commitment across various sectors through strong cross-sector leadership (Vallentin, 2022).
Literature review
The literature review examines how GBV can be heightened in times of crisis by exploring various areas, including leadership in crisis, government policies and infrastructures, government responsibility, social mobility, economic disparities, community leadership, coordination, and socioeconomic implications that affect women and girls in rural communities. The literature highlights the need for collaboration among various sectors to tackle GBV effectively. It emphasizes the role of leaders in prioritizing and coordinating efforts against GBV and the relationship between low social mobility, income inequality, and economic growth. Additionally, it addresses barriers to equality of opportunity and their economic consequences, as well as leadership challenges during the COVID-19 and GBV crises. Ethical, transformative, adaptive, and complex leadership approaches are deemed necessary, along with proactive problem-solving and anticipating challenges.
The literature also underscores the impact of government failure to provide comprehensive services on vulnerable populations, noting how corruption and mismanagement hinder effective support. It discusses the real-life socioeconomic consequences of shifting healthcare funds and the challenges faced by rural communities in accessing services. The role of rural and national leaders in mitigating the costs of inaction and the importance of re-evaluating policies from socioeconomic and health perspectives are highlighted. Furthermore, the literature explores the relationship between income inequality and economic growth, the barriers to equality of opportunity, and the consequences of limiting access to quality healthcare, education, and technology for social mobility and economic growth.
If ineffective governmental infrastructures and policies that address GBV go unaddressed, Kenya will not meet the UN SDGs and the country's social mobility decrees. The inequities and low social mobility are exacerbated, playing a significant role in limiting access to quality healthcare, access to education, educational opportunities, and technology. These limitations negatively impact the nation's economy by reducing productivity. Furthermore, low social mobility is an adverse driver between income inequality and economic growth (Dabla-Norris et al., 2015). The leaders of the rural communities and the rest of Kenya cannot afford not to address the intersectoral coordination of GBV because it comes at a cost that is detrimental to all of the citizens of Kenya. The contravening relationship between income inequality and economic advancement through which decreased levels of equality of opportunity potentially augment the negative impact of income inequities on the rate of economic prosperity (Policardo et al., 2019). For that reason, the inequalities impede the country's economic growth and stifle the country with low social mobility (Jayachandran, 2021).
The education system allows the ablest and gifted to rise to the higher levels of the social hierarchy (Castles, 2016). Education significantly contributes to the country's social mobility because it will prepare the youth and citizens for technology-based economies as the global economy has moved away from low-skilled positions (Zhou, 2004). Technology disproportionately reduces the demand for low-skilled work, causing further economic disparities for women and girls (Blundell et al., 2020). It leaves vulnerable populations without the necessary skills or access to the technology that enables them to compete on digital platforms (Northouse, 2019). Therefore, their mobility is stifled, and they are left behind. The extended school closures left many students forgetting what they had already learned (Angrist et al., 2021).
Additionally, when the schools re-opened, many households had no money to send their children back to school (Angrist et al., 2021). The government covers primary students' school fees (Sawamura and Sifuna, 2008), yet not the additional costs in remote learning during the pandemic. However, when students had to switch to remote learning, there were fees for the internet, television, books, and the batteries for the radio that many families could not afford (Nyathi and Mathwasa, 2022). The government and structures of social influence and social mobility through collective political bargaining, privileges that dominant class and caste status afford, and access to resources all result in a hierarchal society (Agarwal, 2010). The reason for the low rate of social mobility and continual high rates of poverty have contributing factors such as governmental policies, gender inequities, and social and cultural norms (Moss, 2002).
Policymakers in healthcare management also need to understand the impacts of not being a full-service agency, even in a pandemic. If the government fails to provide comprehensive services, it dehumanizes vulnerable populations by disregarding individual patients, as well as the values and principles of the community. So, when decisions are made to move funds from one area to another in healthcare, one must realize that there will be real-life socioeconomic implications for the community, especially for rural communities already facing setbacks in accessing services. Therefore, the leaders in Kenya, from the local to the national level, must re-evaluate how they address GBV from socioeconomic and health perspectives. Two years into the pandemic, the WHO reported that health systems face momentous challenges in providing essential health services (WHO, 2022). The government of Kenya is infiltrated by corruption and mismanagement, preventing direct funding from reaching vulnerable populations (Iheme and Mba, 2020). For example, a cash transfer program failed to distribute emergency funds to low-income people.
Addressing issues of GBV systematically has not been the norm. However, it is imperative that the government embraces this practice to overhaul existing policies and procedures, thereby reducing the risk of violence and empowering women in all aspects of their lives. Women must actively advocate to governmental authorities by sharing their experiences and championing educational initiatives. Effective enforcement by the administration, government, public and private sectors, religious institutions, and security forces is crucial in preventing and deterring all forms of GBV. Research, training, and advocacy efforts are essential to raise awareness and foster a culture of safety against GBV in alignment with gender equality standards and human rights (see Appendix for definition). Gender-sensitive protocols and adherence to national laws must be ensured through training to protect women effectively (Raferty et al., 2022; Patel et al., 2020). Establishing mechanisms such as leaders speaking out against GBV, media coverage supporting women's rights, and shifting social and gender norms to promote equity are essential steps. Empowering women, especially the most vulnerable, to speak out against GBV and report incidents is critical. It is imperative to challenge cultural and social norms that normalize GBV as a form of affection or love (Lang and Young, 2019), as this behavior should not be tolerated.
Leadership during the COVID-19 and GBV crises demanded navigating an array of urgent, high-risk, and uncertain situations. Government authorities and policymakers grappled with a multitude of variables within this context, capturing the intricacies of dealing with complex problems. Leadership transcends individual capabilities and necessitates a combination of approaches to address the challenges posed by the pandemic and its intersection with GBV. Recommended strategies include ethical, transformative, adaptive, and complex leadership. Ethical leadership entails demonstrating responsible conduct through effective communication (Voegtlin et al., 2012). Complex leadership empowers leaders to adapt swiftly amid ongoing pressures (Uhl-Bien, 2021). Adaptive leadership involves navigating changes in perceptions and understanding (Lichtenstein et al., 2006, p. 2). As governmental authorities and policymakers embrace gradual social and cultural changes, they can effectively support followers with innovative strategies. Leaders must be proactive in anticipating problems and identifying their underlying causes. The COVID-19 crisis highlighted the complexity of challenges, including lockdown measures, social distancing, school closures, PPE shortages, and limited resources.
To date, there is an absence of research that seeks to understand how using leadership approaches can have a more positive impact on eradicating Gender-Based Violence while addressing the intersectoral implications of GBV to increase the social mobility of Kenyan society. COVID-19 helps to highlight the shortcomings that fail to address or understand women's experiences of being in abusive relationships and the policies that put their lives and livelihoods at risk.
If Kenya does not establish effective policies to address GBV, it will fail to meet the UN SDGs and social mobility goals, exacerbating inequalities and hindering access to healthcare, education, and technology, which reduces economic growth. Low social mobility, driven by income inequality, impedes progress. Leaders must prioritize intersectoral coordination to tackle GBV, as its costs affect all citizens. The education system is crucial for social mobility, but the digital divide and pandemic-related school closures have stifled progress. Corruption prevents resources from reaching those in need. Addressing GBV systematically is essential for empowering women and reducing violence, requiring collaboration among all sectors. Leadership during the COVID-19 and GBV crises demands ethical, transformative, adaptive, and complex approaches. Proactive problem-solving and gradual social and cultural changes are vital, and research on leadership's impact on eradicating GBV and improving social mobility is necessary.
Methodology
During the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in March 2020, the Kenyan government implemented lockdown measures to contain the virus. However, these measures inadvertently increased the risks of gender-based violence (GBV) for vulnerable women and girls. This study aims to assess the effectiveness of policies by governmental authorities, cultural leaders, and NGOs in improving services for these vulnerable populations during health crises. Through exploratory qualitative research, it examines women's experiences during the pandemic, especially in marginalized agricultural counties, focusing on access to essential services, healthcare, economic support, and employment.
Understanding the impacts of GBV is crucial as it hinders progress towards the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and stifles economic mobility. The literature review explores how GBV escalates during crises, examining leadership, government policies, social mobility, economic disparities, and community leadership. It underscores the need for multi-sectoral collaboration and highlights leaders' roles in addressing GBV, tackling barriers to equality, and adopting ethical, transformative, adaptive, and complex leadership approaches to overcome these challenges.
The exploratory qualitative research conducted by LVCT Health in Nairobi, Kenya, sought a deep understanding of women's experiences during the pandemic. Semi-structured dialogues were used to analyze qualitative data, employing grounded theory to capture nuanced perspectives, particularly from rural women. Given that populations in agricultural counties are often marginalized during health crises, it is crucial to comprehensively examine women's experiences regarding access to essential services, healthcare, economic support, and employment.
Six interviewees, including policymakers and government representatives from relevant ministries, agencies, and departments, were selected for the research using thoughtful snowball sampling (Sharma, 2017). This method ensured the inclusion of participants with specialized expertise who could provide rich insights into their experiences and opinions (Rahi, 2017). The selection of policymakers was based on their professional roles or involvement in past decision-making bodies related to outbreak response and gender equality initiatives. The small sample size aligns with narrative research principles advocated by Creswell (2015), which prioritize depth of analysis over sample size. In qualitative research, small sample sizes are common to facilitate in-depth narrative analysis (Guetterman, 2015). Data was gathered through semi-structured sessions, during which each participant shared their experiences and observations regarding the impact of the pandemic on health, socioeconomic status, and access to essential services for themselves and their communities.
All dialogues were recorded with participants' consent. Interview topic guides were pre-screened with individuals listed as the study population at LVCT Health locations. Each participant was guided through an individualized semi-structured interview by a representative from LVCT Health's gender-centered programs. Skilled analysis assistants ensured the adequacy of interview mechanisms, including anticipated interview durations. The management of topic guides helped clarify any ambiguities in participants' comments, enabling adjustments before data collection. This approach provided the investigative team with authentic experiences in qualitative data collection within the Gender and COVID-19 thematic areas amid the global pandemic. Participants were recruited through the LVCT Health DREAMS site, a non-governmental clinic in rural Migori County, Kenya, focusing on programming for young girls and women. Participants were contacted by phone to inform them about the study, and informed consent was obtained before interview sessions. Mandatory digital consent forms were administered to remote participants, emailed back to researchers before interviews.
To mitigate the risk of COVID-19 transmission, researchers conducted interviews via telephone and virtual platforms such as Google Meetings, Microsoft Teams, or Zoom. The Principle of Active Interviewing guided the process, enabling researchers to prompt interviewees for detailed descriptions of events or experiences (Bevan, 2014). Researchers could rephrase questions to delve deeper into responses, and exploratory questions were interspersed between dialogues to gain additional insights into the topic. Participants were encouraged to share additional comments at the end of the interviews. The interview questions were:
Tell me about yourself and the role you serve.
How long have you served in this position?
What is your organizations or community’s role in the COVID-19 outbreak?
Do you feel that the mission of your organization is affected by gender differences and inequality?
Are there gender concerns considered in decision and policy making?
Are there any advocates or specific individuals that push for gender involvement?
Are senior leaders, such as governors and the county health management teams, spearheading consideration of gender inequalities in terms of policy and guidance? If so, at what level and what type of support?
Do you think enough is being done to tackle the inequalities?
What kinds of resources do you need as a policymakers and government worker during this pandemic in terms of decision making?
In your department, do you have systematic data structures where you maintain all of the data? Is the data always used to improve policy?
How do you think the pandemic has impacted response and recovery during this outbreak?
What provisions have been made for vulnerable populations during the pandemic?
Has COVID-19 impacted access to services? Did it impact the way services are provided to people and vulnerable populations?
How were women and girls from low-income homes impacted in terms of employment, education, security, and food?
How have the government’s local policies affected the public? Do they have policies that align with the public? If so, what were the effects on the public?
What do you think about government responses to COVID-19?
Did the government receive donor funding during the pandemic for COVID-19?
In your opinion, what can be done to reduce women’s vulnerabilities to the pandemic and promote economic empowerment during this crisis?
Did the pandemic impact the way you delivered services to vulnerable populations?
What do you think is our biggest concern going forward in relation to COVID-19 and gendered impacts?
Is there anything else that you’d like to share that has not been asked about in regard to COVID and gendered inequalities?
Participant confidentiality was strictly maintained throughout all stages of data collection. Researchers handling the data signed a Staff Confidentiality Agreement Form, consenting to uphold confidentiality standards. To ensure anonymity, participants' narratives were coded and reported. Researchers utilized the Inductive Thematic Saturation Method for content analysis, adhering to fundamental principles of qualitative research to provide context-specific insights. This approach involved achieving data saturation and analyzing reported accounts from the study population (Hiller, 2010).
Ensuring credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability is crucial for establishing trustworthiness in naturalistic research (Brue and Brue, 2016; Lincoln and Guba, 1982). These principles mirror counterparts in quantitative analysis: internal validity, external validity, reliability, and objectivity (Cypress, 2017). Credibility ensures the study's plausibility, while transferability determines the applicability of findings to other contexts. Dependability evaluates the potential for replicating outcomes, while confirmability ensures that inquiries are traceable to initial data sources (Riley et al., 2018).
To ensure a comprehensive examination of all data facets, triangulation approaches will be employed (Kelle, 2005). Grounded Theory was utilized to provide impetus for analysis and opportunities to delve into underlying personal issues while respecting local cultural nuances (Sawatsky et al., 2018).
Findings
The study includes six participants, all policymakers within the government of Migori County, Kenya. These participants hold various roles that directly impact and inform policy on gender equality and Gender-Based Violence (GBV) in rural communities. The study's overall finding reveals that the government had gender policies in place before COVID-19. However, during the pandemic, most health resources were directed toward responding to COVID-19 and HIV, leaving other essential services, including those addressing GBV, under-resourced. Key issues identified include a lack of access to healthcare services, the need for financial resources, inconsistency in policies and guidelines, a lack of understanding of gender equity, and ineffective policies.
COVID-19 further exposed the fragility of women's socioeconomic inequalities while highlighting the silent pandemic of GBV. The pandemic revealed how women's issues were neglected and showcased the government's lack of preparedness in areas such as resource allocation for those with little to no income, the application of gender-sensitive approaches, and the impact of lockdowns on increasing GBV. Additionally, the findings showed the Kenyan government's dependence on external assistance for funding basic societal needs and a lack of understanding and sensitization among governmental authorities. This gap hindered the appropriate addressing of the intersectoral implications of GBV during the pandemic, especially in rural communities. These sectors include healthcare, education, finance, agriculture, and the judicial system.
Respondents widely concurred that there is a significant lack of understanding within government agencies regarding the concepts of gender equality and essential services. Additionally, communities struggle to grasp the notion of gender equality due to entrenched social and cultural norms influencing both general and professional practices. Respondent PM003 highlighted how gender equity policies had been put in place.
Remember, gender issues are affected mainly by cultural practices. Therefore, we cannot make it without sensitizing the community's resource persons, who can impact the community at large. So, we need resources to sensitize the community, so they know why gender issues are fundamental. Why are they (cultural practices) pulling us backwards in development? And why are they, in this century, not very important? Why should we look at what is not helpful, drop it, and move on with what will make us develop?
Ineffectiveness of policies
The majority of policymakers recognize that current policies and guidance are ineffective in preventing GBV, with cultural and societal structures hindering necessary changes. The lockdown measures and restricted movement led to a surge in Gender-Based Violence (GBV), with many women and girls in rural Migori County trapped with their abusers. Ineffective measures failed to address challenges women faced during the pandemic, further exacerbating the situation. Also, with restricting the movements because of the lockdowns and declaring that the personnel who directly worked with GBV victims were nonessential staff.
The policies that prioritized COVID-19 response often redirected resources away from essential health services, including maternal health, and reproductive health services. Especially in rural areas where they were unable to readily access or afford transportation to public hospitals. Finally, the inconsistent application of policies across different government agencies and offices created disparities in access to resources and support services. The policy and guidelines for government agencies across the country differed on how to tackle gender interventions. A significant number of respondents highlighted the importance of consistency between the policies and guidance enacted by counties and agencies. They pointed out a sense of hypocrite, noting that these entities often fail to adhere to the laws they establish. This inconsistency leads to confusion both internally and externally, hampering efforts to effectively address and eliminate GBV. Rural Migori county was amongst the populations that were neglected, leaving women and girls without the necessary protections and assistance required to support women and girls.
Lack of understanding of gender equality
The majority of policymakers expressed a lack of clarity regarding the concept of gender equality. Consequently, there is a pressing need for additional research, training, and understanding of how policies and practices lacking gender equity adversely impact women, girls, and society at large. Respondent PM005 offered a noteworthy perspective on gender discrimination, diverging from the views of other respondents.
In my view, I hesitate to label it as inequality. When we consider gender inequality, we imply that our interventions for COVID-19 are discriminatory towards one gender, suggesting limitations on their capabilities in combating the pandemic. Therefore, I refrain from calling it inequality. However, it's beneficial to tailor programming according to individuals' competencies and circumstances. Nonetheless, our overarching goal remains to collectively combat this pandemic, regardless of gender.
Policies and training often did not incorporate gender-sensitive approaches, leaving staff without the necessary understanding of how to respond to the specific needs of women and girls. This oversight resulted in measures that were ineffective in addressing the unique challenges faced by women during the pandemic.
Need for financial resources
All respondents emphasized the urgent requirement for increased human and financial resources within their agencies, particularly to support women. The dire circumstances, especially for women and adolescent girls, underscored the heightened vulnerability to violence due to unemployment and financial constraints. Government agencies lacked the capacity to conduct necessary outreach and interventions, further exacerbated by insufficient transportation to reach victims in rural communities.
With limited or no access to economic relief programs, many women, especially those in informal sectors, faced severe financial difficulties. Women who attempted to transition to selling food were worse off because very few people in rural Migori County could afford agricultural goods, resulting in no income and additional losses. Ineffective policies did not address the unique economic vulnerabilities of women, leading to increased poverty and food insecurity.
Lack of access to healthcare services
The respondents highlighted significant impacts on healthcare access, as resources were redirected from other areas due to COVID-19. This led to closures of some full-service health facilities and limited access to health services. Consequently, antenatal services were unavailable in many public health facilities, forcing women to give birth at home if they couldn't reach a distant hospital or afford private care. While the Kenyan government prioritized HIV/AIDS treatment, ensuring a steady supply of antiviral drugs, medications for other conditions were scarce due to supply chain disruptions from lockdowns. Lockdown policies implemented by the health department further endangered women, as economic stressors fueled an increase in GBV. With limited access to food and cash transfers, households faced additional financial burdens. There is a pressing need for intersectoral leadership to understand the broader implications of policies on GBV. Intersectoral leadership would involve collaboration across multiple sectors, including health, education, finance, and agriculture, to address the multifaceted challenges effectively. “Complexity begins in organizations as pressures, often in the form of an adaptive challenge – a problem for which (1) there is no known solution, (2) people must work together in new partnerships who haven't worked together before, (3) these partnerships are characterized by conflicting views (i.e. high heterogeneity), and (4) agents have high interdependence such that, in extreme cases, they must adapt together, or they will die (Uhl-Bien and Arena, 2017).”
Practical implications
Overwhelmingly, the findings showed that the GBV intervention and prevention programs have insufficient funds to have a positive impact in fighting GBV or keeping up with the exacerbating cases. BV often intersects with economic factors, such as poverty and financial dependence, which can contribute to women's vulnerability. Limited access to economic opportunities, unequal pay, and lack of financial independence can trap women in abusive situations and hinder their ability to escape GBV. The GBV work was principally supported by international non-governmental organizations and NGOs (Orindi et al., 2020). This reflects the lack of funding given to GBV before and during COVID-19. The government within Kenya has worked to ensure that work environments, meetings, and policies address gender equity. However, the administration has yet to understand that cultural and social biases must change within organizations and communities. The policies and guidance shouldn't appear solely as words on paper. There must be a change within the governmental authorities and policymakers to adhere to and implement the policies. The effectiveness of these measures depends on their implementation and enforcement. Weak enforcement mechanisms, lack of resources, and cultural resistance can impede the translation of policies into tangible outcomes if no action is taken to see a cultural shift within governmental systems that speaks toward a change in the patriarchal mindsets and then, it doesn't dwindle to the community level. The respondents overwhelmingly agreed that there is a need for more research, understanding, and training on gender equity. In addition, there is a need to understand the essential services (see Appendix for definition) women require in and out of pandemics. The government and its authorities, politicians, and policymakers need a greater understanding of the sensitive obstacles women face to begin addressing GBV and its intersectoral implications for socioeconomic, health, and social mobility in the country. The government of Kenya explicitly defined GBV Services as essential in May 2020 (Kenya Ministry of Health, 2020), yet the response was not reflective of an emergency.
The interviews with policymakers suggest that government lockdowns and the failure of support interventions exacerbated GBV and its impact on women and girls. Additionally, staff shortages, lack of supplies, and overall infrastructure limitations impeded the provision of adequate services for women in rural communities. Politicians, government officials, and policymakers must reflect on these lessons and reconsider their perceptions of women in society. Leadership must transcend traditional gender roles and norms, acknowledging the underlying issues that perpetuate GBV.
The pandemic highlighted disparities in access to healthcare and essential services, especially for women and rural communities. Limited access to healthcare facilities, including reproductive health services and support for GBV survivors, further exacerbates the impact of GBV on women's health and well-being. Furthermore, the government and policymakers must recognize the impracticality of reallocating resources from other healthcare sectors to address a single health issue. Such decisions can lead to crises in other areas of healthcare. The Kenyan government and its agencies must acknowledge that patriarchal norms influence their policies, further marginalizing women financially, emotionally, and socially. The current governmental strategies inadvertently exacerbated GBV during COVID-19, leaving women and girls without access to healthcare, protection services, financial assistance, and basic necessities like food and water.
Further research should assess the implementation and enforcement of gender equity policies within Kenyan government agencies and workplaces to identify barriers and improve effectiveness. It should investigate the sufficiency of funding for GBV intervention and prevention programs in rural communities during and post-COVID-19. Additionally, research should analyze factors influencing the implementation and enforcement of GBV-related policies, including cultural resistance and resource allocation. Finally, it should explore integrated and cross-sector approaches that combine economic empowerment, education, legal reforms, and social change to prevent and address all forms of GBV.
Conclusions
GBV has profound consequences for victims, families, and the nation of Kenya, highlighting the urgent need for impactful policy responses. It results in increased medical costs, physical and mental suffering for victims and their families, loss of earnings, and strains on public social and health services. These factors diminish economic output and social mobility. Delays in improving laws, policies, and guidance hinder government ministries from effectively addressing gender equity across health, education, social welfare, justice, and law enforcement. Agencies struggle with shortages of financial and human resources to protect vulnerable women and girls and change societal norms. Mindful leadership is essential, requiring leaders to adopt new mindsets that recognize the complexities of social processes (Thien and Tu, 2019; Lichtenstein et al., 2006). Mindful leadership emphasizes understanding unique scenarios and fostering positive experiences for constituents. Ethical leadership approaches are necessary to address the challenges facing vulnerable women, transcending patriarchal norms and promoting fairness for all. It is essential to understand the ongoing needs of women and girls within rural communities for financial resources, overall healthcare, and sexual and reproductive healthcare. Additionally, platforms that allow for continuous education during pandemics and endemics, as well as continuous services that help prevent GBV or support women affected by GBV, are crucial.
The government's ability to address the multifaceted issues stemming from GBV relies on its awareness, training, and skills to identify and rectify institutional structures and policies entrenched in patriarchal norms and gender biases. This study offers a platform for the Kenyan government, as well as other nations with similar socioeconomic statuses and cultures, to reassess policy approaches through the lens of social mobility and meeting the SDGs. It emphasizes the need for training in policy development with a strategic focus on preventing violence by addressing root causes and inequalities at all societal levels. Multi-sectoral and cross-sectoral approaches are essential, alongside effective policy implementation and monitoring with clear evaluation plans to measure outcomes. By adopting these tools with a focus on social mobility, the government can shift away from harmful patriarchal norms, fostering empowering and transformative approaches that benefit all citizens. It was allow for more comprehensive approaches to that give attention to Gender-Based Violence (GBV) due to its profound impact on Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and social mobility. These goals are imperative for Kenya’s development, as they provide a framework for building a more equitable and prosperous society, where all citizens can thrive. Social mobility is equally critical, as it ensures individuals have the opportunity to improve their economic and social status, fostering a more inclusive and dynamic economy.
Kenya's government officials, including politicians, administrators, judges, chiefs, elders, and policymakers, must reevaluate their approach to gender equity by prioritizing mindful leadership that cares for all citizens and fosters trust. Prioritizing women's and girls' interests by ensuring they have access to healthcare, aligning gendered and GBV policies and guidelines across all agencies through cross-sector approaches, and providing resources to both the women and girls they serve and the agencies that administer these services will lead to thriving communities, increased social mobility for all Kenyans, and the fulfillment of SDGs. Ethical leadership, demonstrating normatively appropriate conduct and promoting it through communication and decision-making, is essential to building trust and ensuring positive outcomes. Establishing intimate collaboration with GBV victims and vulnerable populations will yield sustainable solutions, fostering participatory research to understand their needs and experiences. Government authorities must remain adaptive, recognizing and addressing warning signs of crises.
Effectively addressing the intricate social issues tied to GBV demands collaboration among diverse stakeholders, including government ministries, NGOs, civil society, traditional leaders, and others. It's imperative to devise multiple intervention strategies and solutions, with a steadfast commitment to continual learning and policy refinement aimed at preventing GBV, uplifting vulnerable women, and promoting social mobility. Developing these strategies and solutions requires continuous learning, optimization, and refinement of policies to prevent GBV and empower women from vulnerable populations. Amid the challenges of the COVID-19 crisis and potential future pandemics, mindful, transformative, adaptive, and complex leadership styles are essential and complementary. Leaders’ adept at integrating these approaches can navigate the complexities of GBV effectively, fostering resilience, driving innovation, and catalyzing positive change within their organizations and communities, ultimately enhancing social mobility of their community and Kenya.
Funding: This work was supported by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation under Grant number 07300.
Appendix Definition of terms
COVID-19- The Coronavirus disease 2019 is a virus that causes severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) (Astuti and Ysrafil, 2020).
Culture – The mutual shared beliefs, values, and norms of a group of people (Northouse, 2019).
Cultural Norms/Social Norms: The rules, expectations, values and standards that guide the behavior of people in societies (Bullough et al., 2022).
Economic Violence/Economic Abuse – A type of violence committed by individuals or groups preying on economically disadvantaged individuals such as. Informal or undocumented workers; some men put their wives in a state of subservience by refusing their rights to make decisions in the home (Vilog and Piocos, 2021).
Essential Services – The core services that respond to the immediate and long-term needs and well-being of women and girls who have experienced violence, including, health, police and justice, and economic and social services (UN Women, 2022a, b).
Ethnocentrism – The belief that one’s race, ethnic or cultural group is to place one at the center of one’s observations of others and the world (Bizumic and Sheppard, 2022).
Femicide – The killing of a women by a domestic partner (Okech, 2021).
Gender-Based Violence – The overarching term used for violence against women and girls indicating a human rights violation. This also includes the immediate ad long-term physical, sexual, and mental consequences for women and girls can be devastating, including death (UN Women, 2022a, b).
Gender-based Violence in Environment – Discriminatory access and rule of natural resources is marked by historical and structurally unequal power relations and intersectional unfairness based on gender, age, tribe, and other identities (Bradley, 2015).
Human Rights – Rights that belong to all individual based on fairness, mutual respect and equity (Sangiovanni, 2017).
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