Adapting to climate change: lessons from Chile’s coastal communities

Abstract

Purpose

This study aims to examine the intricate relationship between Chile’s coastal communities and the increasing effects of climate change, with a focus on Caleta Lenga as a case study. Chile’s extensive coastline is closely linked to the country’s economic well-being and the livelihoods of millions of people. The mounting threats posed by climate change require immediate action. To strengthen resilience and reduce risk, adaptive measures are imperative. However, effective adaptation is hindered by numerous barriers, including adaptive capacity and governance challenges.

Design/methodology/approach

This study uses a case study approach, which centres on Caleta Lenga’s unique socio-environmental and demographic context. This study used semi-structured interviews and historical reconstruction to reveal a socio-economic and environmental narrative that was influenced by significant events and transitions.

Findings

The residents’ perception of climate change impacts was viewed through the lens of industrial activities and changing weather patterns. This study emphasizes the community’s resilience in the face of changing socio-environmental dynamics. It highlights the importance of informed decision-making, community cooperation and the preservation of ancestral knowledge in promoting adaptive strategies based on community solidarity and collective decision-making. The findings underscore the need for effective adaptation measures that address both adaptive capacity and governance challenges to bolster climate resilience in vulnerable coastal communities.

Originality/value

The findings underscore the need for effective adaptation measures that address both adaptive capacity and governance challenges to bolster climate resilience in vulnerable coastal communities.

Citation

Parra, J. and Jensen, M. (2024), "Adapting to climate change: lessons from Chile’s coastal communities", International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, Vol. ahead-of-print No. ahead-of-print. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCCSM-03-2024-0044

Introduction

Chile has a transcendental relationship with the Pacific Ocean, with approximately 83,000 km of coastline, both its foreign trade and the habitation of millions of people are directly dependent on the sea-related infrastructure and coastal human settlements are spread throughout the country (Martínez et al., 2019).

Chile’s coastal communities are now facing a global challenge with local implications: climate change. Although coastal areas and their communities have historically suffered disasters of natural origin (CEPAL, 2014) – tsunamis and toxic microalgae blooms – and others of anthropic origin – degradation of natural areas due to industrial pollution or overexploitation of species – the impacts and risks associated with climate change are expected to increase in the coming decades (Pörtner et al., 2022). The damage and risks to the socio-economic and eco-cultural systems of coastal settlements (Hallegatte et al., 2020), as in the case of Caleta Lenga in Chile, will increase as concentrations of anthropogenic greenhouse gases rise.

The effects of climate change are already measurable and visible across much of the planet, particularly in Chile, where severe droughts, wildfires, melting glaciers and the premature disappearance of current climates in protected areas have been observed and predicted (Jensen and Pliscoff, 2023). In the case of coastal areas, important changes include displacement or loss of marine species and coastal wetlands, sea level rise and consequent loss of ecosystems and habitats and more frequent storm surges/floods (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [IPCC], 2023; Pörtner et al., 2022).

Vulnerability assessments play a crucial role in understanding the potential impacts of climate change on coastal communities and informing the development of effective adaptation strategies. These assessments consider a range of factors, including exposure to climate hazards, sensitivity of the community and its assets and adaptive capacity (IPCC, 2014). By analysing the physical, social, economic and environmental characteristics of a community, vulnerability assessments help identify the areas and groups that are most at risk from climate change impacts, such as sea-level rise, coastal erosion and extreme weather events (Nguyen et al., 2016). The results of these assessments can be used to prioritize adaptation actions, allocate resources and engage stakeholders in the planning process (Tonmoy et al., 2014). In the context of coastal communities like Caleta Lenga, vulnerability assessments are particularly important, as these areas are often highly dependent on marine resources and are exposed to multiple climate hazards as the IPCC (2023) highlights.

Adaptation aims to enhance the ability to respond to disasters or emergencies by reducing risk (adaptive capacity). This involves mitigating the damage or number of potential adverse consequences/impacts of events or hazards directly or indirectly related to climate, while considering the social or biophysical vulnerability of systems. It includes the ability to respond or reorganize in an adaptive feedback loop that facilitates learning and transformation. This concept is closely related to adaptive capacity, hazards, vulnerability and response capacity in the context of climate variability (IPCC, 2018; Owen, 2020; Stockholm Environmental Institute and Stockholm Resilience Centre, 2013).

Three considerations can be identified as barriers to adapting to climate change: society’s capacity to adapt; social factors that could hinder adaptation; and climate governance, political and governmental actors, and their role in creating opportunities for adaptation. Social vulnerability factors include inequality, injustice and religious tensions. It is important to consider the sectoral, social, spatial and cultural context at different time scales. Case studies can provide valuable insights into these factors (Biesbroek et al., 2013; Thi Hong Phuong et al., 2017).

The role of memory and information transfer in the face of the risk of natural disasters or socio-economic events with high impact at the local level plays a preeminent role in societies that have ancestral knowledge of this kind. From the creation of food banks to alleviate periods when hydro-meteorological events prevent the collection/hunting of food, or the preparation of shelters in the face of storms (Hiwasaki et al., 2014), or the sheltering of boats in the face of storm surges are practices that have been passed down from generation to generation, whether in a technical or traditional/oral way. In some societies, the different perceptions of risk and climate change have also been studied from a gender perspective. Here, the relevant question is that of key informants and the role of those who transmit information, both historically and those who, having the knowledge, act as alerts (Cadierno Gutiérrez, 2018; Oviedo Carrillo, 2014; Quintanilla and Víctor, 2004).

In this way, community and adaptation can be linked in a single concept: “community adaptation”. This values local culture and knowledge, enhancing community autonomy in seeking to promote their adaptive capacity (Agard et al., 2014). It is also possible to recognize and link the role of government and civil society actors, who are inherently involved in the response to climate change, in the analysis of potential adaptation actions, knowing the aptitude/memory and socio-ecological resources of the community (Cadierno Gutiérrez, 2018; Hiwasaki et al., 2014; Olivares Reyes, 2022).

Climate action involves municipalities, national and subnational governments, which have found it necessary to develop mitigation and adaptation plans at different levels. At the municipal level – in the case of Chile – the Framework Law on Climate Change, which entered into force in 2022, includes in its Article 12 actions at the municipal level and sets a deadline of three years from the publication of this law for the submission of “Municipal Action Plans on Climate Change”. This law sets the goal of making the country carbon neutral – reducing greenhouse gas emissions – and climate resilient by 2050 at the latest. It encourages the implementation of measures to adapt to the impacts caused by climate variability, including extreme tides, rising temperatures, floods and droughts. It also aims to improve food and water security and reduce pollution and health risks.

The relationship between urbanization and climate change is complex, and when we add inequity, degradation of natural areas and factors that make socio-ecological systems more vulnerable, it is essential to assess the risks and adaptive capacity of the population and habitat of more vulnerable human settlements. Decision-making and action plans for adaptation to climate change are enriched by the inclusion of local knowledge and the active participation of local people (IPCC, 2022; Satterthwaite, 2007).

This article seeks to examine the case study of Caleta Lenga in Chile, a coastal community struggling with the consequences of climate change and socio-environmental change, highlighting the importance of community memory and adaptive capacity in responding to these challenges.

Methodology

Case study, Caleta Lenga, Chile

The coastal settlement of Caleta Lenga (36°46′01″S 73°10′17″O) has a history of adapting to major events, whether environmental, social or economic. One of the most recent events was the 2010 earthquake and tsunami in Chile. This event affected the three areas described above, causing serious damage to infrastructure and straining the local economy and social-ecological fabric (Martínez et al., 2011; Vargas et al., 2011). This tension between the natural and the social is now also at the centre of climate change concerns.

Caleta Lenga is in a unique socio-environmental situation, with characteristics that make it distinctive and place it in complex but contrasting contexts. On the one hand, its geographical location between the sea, marshes and hills offers a distinctive natural environment, as part of the protected areas such as the Peninsula de Hualpen Nature Reserve, where the Lenga saltmarshes stand out, and which is expected to be declared soon as the Peninsula de Hualpén Marine and Coastal Protected Area of Multiple Uses. However, the proximity of Caleta Lenga to the Hualpén petrochemical complex and the port of Talcahuano in San Vicente Bay adds a human and anthropogenic dimension to its environment. This combination of natural elements and human activities, especially industrialization, is a source of considerable tension, both in terms of the town’s urban development and the way of life of its inhabitants.

Caleta Lenga was chosen as the case study for this research due to its unique characteristics and also because the authors of this study have a personal connection to the community, having visited and interviewed residents of Caleta Lenga after the 2010 earthquake and witnessed its evolution over time. This first-hand experience, combined with the community’s distinct characteristics and challenges, make Caleta Lenga a compelling case study for understanding the impacts of climate change on coastal communities and the potential for community-based adaptation strategies.

Images 1 and 2: Left: A dog over a damaged concrete slab house in the aftermath of the 2010 Chilean earthquake and tsunami in Caleta Lenga. Right: A damaged artisanal fishing boat after the 2010 tsunami.

Images 3 and 4: Left: The Lenga salt marshes, also called Lenga River by the local population, and the Caleta Lenga settlement on the right. Right: Fishermen collecting pelillo algae on Lenga beach, in the background, food trucks and a café with a sign advertising boat trips.

Images 5 and 6: Left: Artisanal fishing boats across the dried wetland. Right: View of Calenta Lenga from the seawall boardwalk along the Pacific Ocean. From here, the restaurant area and the handicraft fair can be seen on the right, along with the public parking lot. On the left, tourists enjoying a sunny day on the beach, in the background the industrial zone.

The demographic system of Caleta Lenga consists of 420 inhabitants, with 212 females and 208 males and 115 dwellings (Instituto Nacional de Estadística – Chile, 2018), 74.3% of the population is over 15 years old. The main source of labour is self-employment and informal in extractive activities such as artisanal fishing, seaweed harvesting and gastronomy (Garcés Vera, 2022).

In recent years, and in the context of global warming, due to greenhouse gases and geomorphological changes caused by the 2010 earthquake (Isla et al., 2012), the Lenga Saltmarsh, a priority site for the Regional Biodiversity Strategy SP2-059 “Wetlands of the Lacustrine Lake System”, has been observed with concern.

The saltmarsh plays a role in climate change mitigation and adaptation, its ecosystem services include creating a safety buffer zone to protect artisanal fishermen’s boats from storm surges and it also acts as a precursor for biological organisms related to fisheries (Herrera, 2021). In addition, it can act as a barrier to slow down tsunamis (Boesch and Turner, 1984; Clean Foundation, 2020; Leonardi et al., 2017; Mazzocco et al., 2022; Valiela et al., 2002).

Semi-structured interview

To gain a deeper understanding of the community’s experiences, perceptions and adaptive strategies related to climate change and socio-environmental events, semi-structured interviews were conducted with residents of Caleta Lenga. The interviews were designed based on field observations, which revealed the community’s unique socio-environmental context and a literature review that highlighted the importance of local knowledge and experiences in understanding climate change adaptation.

Purposive sampling was initially used to identify key informants from the community, ensuring that individuals with diverse backgrounds and expertise were included in the study. Field visits were conducted to approach individuals from different areas of Caleta Lenga, including businesses and coastal areas. Subsequently, the snowball sampling technique was used to expand the pool of interviewees, allowing for the identification of additional participants who could provide valuable insights.

In total, eight residents of Caleta Lenga participated in the semi-structured interviews during November 2023. The sample consisted of an equal number of male and female participants, with ages ranging from 26 to 76 years old, in line with the Census data for the community (INE, 2024). The participants had lived in Caleta Lenga for varying lengths of time, from five years to their entire lives, providing a diverse range of perspectives on the community’s experiences.

The interviews explored various themes, including family history and arrival in Caleta Lenga, occupations and livelihoods, experiences with extreme climatic events and environmental disasters, community organization and response to disasters, knowledge and practices passed down through generations, unique characteristics of the Caleta Lenga community, perceptions and understanding of climate change, observed impacts of climate change in Caleta Lenga, preparedness for climate change, future aspirations and dreams for Caleta Lenga.

The interviews were conducted in Spanish. The data were then coded and categorized using Atlas.ti. This process allowed for the identification of the main themes and patterns that emerged from the participants’ responses. Tableau, was then used to explore and visualize the relationships between the identified themes and concepts, enabling a deeper understanding of the connections and patterns within the data. The use of Atlas.ti and Tableau in the analysis process allowed for a systematic and thorough examination of the data, ultimately contributing to a comprehensive understanding of the community’s adaptive strategies and resilience in the face of climate change.

A logical framework that shows how the research objectives interacts with the methodology and results is shown in Figure 1.

Reconstruction of the socio-environmental history of Caleta Lenga

Using historical information from secondary sources as well as the interviews, a timeline was created in which both components of the history of the Hualpen peninsula and Caleta Lenga are intertwined with environmental events of great importance and impact for the inhabitants of the community, as well as events of national and international impact, such as the 1973 coup d’état in Chile, the return of democracy, the COVID-19 pandemic and the signing or adoption of laws and international agreements related to the environment and climate change. Each of the events in this timeline has cross-cutting and unique characteristics. The timeline was created using Time.Graphics.

Results

Semi-structured interviews

This urban settlement on the coast has its origins in the exploitation of a stone quarry (1949), whose materials were destined for the construction of the Huachipato steelworks. Once the quarry was closed, the inhabitants moved to the Lenga sector, with the consequent economic conversion of the inhabitants, who were engaged in primary activities such as fishing and collecting pelillo (algae). Then, due to the over-exploitation of seaweed, there was a new process of economic conversion and a new way of life for the settlement, which now includes gastronomic tourism as its main economic activity.

To gain a better understanding of mobility processes and the consolidation of Lenga as a settlement, during the interviews, we inquired about the arrival of both maternal and paternal families to Caleta Lenga. Although the interviewees did not provide exact dates of arrival to the sector, they did provide information on the arrival process, including the geographic points from which they came and the time of their arrival. They highlighted the importance of the quarry or the hill and described a process of migration from urban Hualpén and Talcahuano after the year 2000. The residents of the cove, who have lived there for decades, provide us with the opportunity to witness the process of displacement within the Hualpén Peninsula. Their families have gradually moved from the mouth of the Biobío River, Chome and Chome countryside and hills, as well as from Caleta Perone and Ramuncho as Figure 2 shows. After the quarry closed and due to the instability of the terrain, they relocated to the river sector, which is now the location of Caleta Lenga. This relocation occurred after the Great Concepcion-Angol-Valdivia Earthquake in 1960.

The interviews provide insight into the variety of jobs, skills and trades that Caleta Lenga residents engaged in before and during their time in the area. These include agriculture, fishing and seaweed gathering, often requiring long journeys to sell fresh produce in Concepción. Many residents, especially those who arrived during periods of industrial activity, began working at a young age, assisting their families with various tasks. Residents in Lenga have taken on various jobs, including cleaning up oil spills and other environmental disasters, to earn income and improve their living conditions. Despite facing challenges such as intermittent work due to environmental disasters and the loss of boats in the 2010 tsunami, they have persisted in traditional occupations like fishing and shellfish harvesting. In addition, younger residents have found work in personal care, restaurants and kitchens. During periods of unemployment, they have relied on the sea for sustenance.

During the 2010 earthquake and tsunami in the south central region of Chile, many families sought refuge on a nearby hill for weeks. They took turns carrying food and caring for their homes. This is evidenced by their efforts to enable their commercial establishments and seek new opportunities for development and work. For instance, the evolution of ramadas selling food in restaurants and kitchens is a clear indication of their contribution. Previous studies in the region have highlighted the crucial role played by women as proactive agents in post-disaster reconstruction (Tumini et al., 2016). Women’s involvement in reconstruction has led to more resilient communities and strengthened their independence and security.

The community of Caleta Lenga highlights the importance of the neighbourhood council, solidarity between neighbours and family work as ways of organizing in the face of problems. The role of young people and social networks is also highlighted. The values passed on by the ancestors, such as constant work, good interpersonal relations and the connection with the sea and the peninsula, are highly valued. Unity and organization are considered unique characteristics of the community, especially in times of disaster. In terms of dreams and aspirations for the bay, they seek to maintain and strengthen unity, reduce commercial rivalry and promote mutual support among the inhabitants.

Regarding climate change and its impact on the bay, there is a range of knowledge and opinions. Some individuals attribute the changes to global warming, whereas others express concern about the loss of marine species and wetlands. The deterioration has been gradual, and some attribute it to industrial activity in the area, including industrial fishing, as well as changes in weather patterns. In addition, there have been noticeable changes in rainfall and temperature in the region. The drying up of the river or wetland has led to an increase in the presence of vectors such as flies. Some attribute this to changes in sea temperature, whereas others mention sea lions hindering small-scale fishing by jumping on nets or fishermen. Some individuals feel well-prepared for the upcoming years, stating that they are not afraid due to their experience living in isolation in Hualpén and relying on the sea. However, others express a lack of preparedness and a need for more informative meetings and courses. Although some are concerned about the rise in temperatures, others view it as an opportunity to increase tourism and sales. The main concepts, subcategories and mentions extracted from the interviews in Caleta Lenga can be seen in Table 1.

In assessing their preparedness for climate change, the community of Caleta Lenga demonstrates a strong belief in their ability to survive and overcome challenges. Although some view the changes as potential economic opportunities, others acknowledge the lack of information and the need for adaptation strategies. The community’s close connection to the sea and the life lessons passed down through generations contribute to their versatility and resilience. To address the challenges posed by climate change, the community proposes several adaptation measures, including improving road infrastructure for emergency response, enhancing coastal infrastructure to prevent flooding, promoting environmental education and developing port infrastructure to support tourism. However, they also recognize the potential risks associated with increased tourism, such as criminal activity, underlining the importance of a balanced and sustainable approach to development.

The analysis of the interviews reveals differences in the perceptions and priorities of fishermen and algae collectors compared to those working in the tourism/gastronomic sector. Fishermen and algae collectors appear to be more focused on the changes they have observed in their environment, such as variations in the presence of fish, seafood and algae, as well as the decrease in products available for their activities. They also mention concepts related to changes in climate and the river and the need for adaptation and community organization. On the other hand, workers in the tourism sector emphasize concepts related to tourism, infrastructure and the economic opportunities that climate change could generate. They also mention the importance of environmental education, the lack of information and the need for adaptation and community organization. These differences in the most mentioned concepts by each group may reflect their specific concerns and priorities in relation to climate change and adaptation strategies. However, both groups share some common concepts, such as adaptation, climate change, community organization and work, suggesting that these issues are relevant to the entire community, regardless of their occupation.

Socio-environmental history of Caleta Lenga

This timeline includes two petrochemical spills (Armada de Chile, 2007; Soulodre Walker, 1995), one in 1977 and another in 2007, as well as several earthquakes and tsunamis, including the Concepción-Cañete-Valdivia earthquake of 1960 and the Cauquenes earthquake of 2010. It covers different periods, such as the petrochemical period from the inauguration of the Bío ENAP Refinery in 1963 to the present day, with its consequent episodes of contamination, including mercury and spills in the Lenga marsh and San Vicente Bay. It is worth noting that the gastronomic period began in the 1960s with small, simple ramadas, as mentioned in interviews. It was not until 1997 that the first restaurant patent was obtained (González, 2016). Furthermore, there are also the periods of pelillo (algae extraction) and Humedal (marsh), or del Río as referred to by the settlers in the interviews.

During field visits and conversations with local residents, we observed tourist activity, particularly boat trips around the peninsula, sometimes even reaching the lighthouse.

The sector for tourist boat embarkation coincides with the pelillo extraction sector, an activity carried out by both men and women, individually or in groups, on different scales. The historical timeline that represents the major social, environmental and cultural events affecting Caleta Lenga since the early 20th century is shown in Figure 3.

Discussion

The analysis of the interviews conducted with the residents of Caleta Lenga reveals a strong sense of community and an appreciation for family and neighbourhood unity. However, there is no unanimous agreement on the perception and understanding of climate change. Although some are concerned about associated phenomena such as tidal waves, water crises in wetlands and temperature variations, including rising summer temperatures and warming waters where fishing occurs, more education and information on the subject is needed.

The oldest members of the community possess a wealth of inherited practices and skills from their ancestors. These abilities have often been passed down through generations and adapted to suit the needs of their families. Learning begins at a young age and encompasses a range of activities, including adapting to the natural resources available, such as the sea, agriculture and trade. For those over 50 years old, travelling across the peninsula, whether by sea or through the fields and hills, remains a natural part of life. However, the logic behind this does not appear to be present in the newer generations evenly. There is a strong sense of attachment to the Hualpén Peninsula, the cove and the Lenga marsh. However, the use of the coastal space varies between those with more experience working at sea and those who have focused on the gastronomic industry. The latter group shows less familiarity with the natural area in their daily lives, while still maintaining a sense of belonging. However, there is a segment of the younger generation that is actively involved in environmental protection, particularly in preserving the marshes and the birds that reside there. In addition, there are organized cleaning campaigns where volunteers remove garbage from the peninsula.

There is also documentation of immediate or very rapid personal and community actions in response to events that have affected them. For example, after the 2010 earthquake, restaurants and community members came together to provide economic support through the use of common pots (olla comun). In addition, there was a labour reconversion from fishing and shelling to beach and sea cleaning after oil spills. Another example is the impact of the pandemic on tourism, which has led to the rise of food trucks. Similarly, the decline in fishing and availability of ocean and marsh products has resulted in a shift towards boat rides.

The inhabitants of Caleta Lenga possess a wealth of practices and a culture of adaptation that provide a strong foundation for community adaptation. To fully use these resources, it is important to recognize and support the informed and capable agency of community actors, thereby promoting adaptive capacity.

Knowledge of the strengths and weaknesses of the people living in the area, their environment and their history would make it possible to develop a more efficient and robust short-, medium- and long-term strategy for adapting to climate change. Although there is competition between neighbours for customers, there is also a sense of empathy and care for each other.

Caleta Lenga has significant potential for tourism, particularly if safe paths to the interior of the peninsula are constructed. It is also crucial to establish evacuation routes and infrastructure that can provide safe shelter in the event of a tsunami. Analyses and studies have been conducted to determine the most effective way to implement these measures. Even anti-tsunami towers have been considered but these plans have not yet materialized. The evacuation route to Teta Norte hill is precariously demarcated and its road maintenance is inadequate. Although many residents of the cove use traditional escape routes to the back of the wetland, the floating population may not be aware of these routes.

An opportunity for the community to improve their climate change adaptation measures is to consider creating resilience hubs. This is particularly important given the vulnerability of the community. This infrastructure provides a space for promoting community cohesion and serves as a refuge from disasters and extreme temperatures. It can also be the hub for community adaptation and learning, providing tools for monitoring, supporting neighbours and those who need greater assistance in the face of changes in their living conditions due to climate variability (Rajkovich and Holmes, 2021; De Roode and Martinac, 2020).

Comparison with other Coves

Caleta Lenga presents similarities with wetlands located in the Department of Tumbes in Peru, both are coastal communities that share similar characteristics in terms of tourism and climate change. Both regions rely on their natural resources, such as wetlands, salt marshes and mangrove ecosystems, to attract tourists interested in nature-based activities and ecotourism. However, climate change poses significant challenges to the tourism sector in both areas, as rising sea levels, changes in precipitation patterns and extreme weather events like El Niño and La Niña threaten the fragile ecosystems and tourism infrastructure (Carrasco et al., 2016; Martínez et al., 2018; Takahashi and Martínez, 2019; Trenberth et al., 2014).

To adapt to these challenges, both Caleta Lenga and the Coves in Tumbes have been exploring ways to diversify their tourism offerings and build resilience. Tumbes Mangroves National Sanctuary offers a diversity of tourist activities focused on nature and birdwatching, similar to initiatives in Lenga. Community-based initiatives in Caleta Lenga have focused on promoting sustainable tourism practices, such as guided tours that educate visitors about the importance of preserving the local environment. Similarly, efforts have been made in Tumbes to develop sustainable tourism practices that minimize the impact on the mangrove ecosystem and support local livelihoods (Morán and Bermejo, 2014; Rojas et al., 2021). These adaptive measures demonstrate the resilience and adaptability of both communities in the face of climate change, as they work towards building long-term sustainability in their tourism sectors.

Caleta Lenga and Caleta Tubul, both located in Chile, share similar experiences in the aftermath of the 2010 earthquake and tsunami. In Tubul, the tsunami’s impact was exacerbated by the natural conditions of the bays, such as the presence of estuaries, low altitude and low slope of the beach plains (Martínez, 2014). Tubul, situated in the Gulf of Arauco, is part of a coastal basin system that includes the Raqui wetland, a Ramsar site of great biological diversity. The inhabitants, approximately 2,000 people, mainly rely on fishing and, before the tsunami, received significant income from the collection of “pelillo” algae. The earthquake and consequent uplift of about 1.6 m dried up a significant part of the wetland (Valdovinos et al., 2010), forcing the inhabitants to diversify their economic activities.

Today, one of the main economic activities in Caleta Tubul is the extraction and shelling of the “huepo” (Ensis macha) and “navajuela” (Tagelus dombeii) mollusks, divided by gender, with men collecting and women processing them for sale. The adaptations carried out are based on the pre-existence of diverse economic activities prior to the disaster, allowing for slight adjustments instead of radical changes in lifestyles. However, actions taken to ensure short-term stability, such as the construction of social housing on inland wetlands prone to flooding and highly dangerous in the event of a tsunami, may increase physical and social vulnerability, similar to the challenges faced by the community in Caleta Lenga.

Caleta El Toro (Río Limarí) and Caleta Totoral are two small, rural coastal communities in Chile that share similar challenges and opportunities as Caleta Lenga, related to their unique ecosystems and the impacts of climate change. All three communities are located near important wetlands or river mouths that have been recognized as Ramsar sites or Nature Sanctuaries due to their ecological significance and biodiversity (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2020). These protected areas provide valuable ecosystem services and support local livelihoods, such as fishing and tourism. However, the communities also face common threats, including the impacts of the 2010 and 2015 tsunami, which caused significant damage to infrastructure and forced the relocation of some residents (Diario el Dia, 2015).

Despite these challenges, the communities have demonstrated resilience and adaptability in the face of change. In Caleta Lenga, community-based initiatives have focused on promoting sustainable tourism practices and educating visitors about the importance of preserving the local environment. Similarly, in Caleta Totoral, efforts have been made to balance the development of tourism with the conservation of the wetlands, recognizing the potential threats that unmanaged tourism can pose to these fragile ecosystems (Ministerio del Medio Ambiente, 2019). In Caleta El Toro, the community has worked to protect and restore the Río Limarí wetlands, which provide critical habitat for migratory birds and other wildlife (Navarro et al., 2021). By leveraging their natural and cultural assets, these communities are working towards building long-term sustainability and resilience in the face of climate change and other challenges.

The comparison case studies of Caleta Lenga with the Coves in Tumbes, Peru, Caleta Tubul, Caleta El Toro (Río Limarí) and Caleta Totoral in Chile demonstrate that small, coastal communities face similar challenges and opportunities related to their unique ecosystems and the impacts of climate change. These communities rely heavily on their natural resources for both their livelihoods and the development of sustainable tourism practices, but climate change and natural disasters, such as tsunamis, pose significant threats to these fragile ecosystems. Despite these challenges, the case studies highlight the resilience and adaptability of these coastal communities in the face of change, as they promote sustainable practices, educate visitors and diversify their economic activities. However, the case studies also reveal the potential pitfalls of short-term solutions, underscoring the need for careful, long-term planning and the incorporation of local knowledge and community participation in decision-making processes. By learning from these shared experiences and promoting the exchange of knowledge and best practices, these communities can continue to build resilience and adapt to the changing environment while preserving their unique natural and cultural heritage.

Relocation as an adaptation strategy in Lenga

The relocation of coastal communities is presented as a measure to adapt to climate change (Dannenberg et al., 2019; Sinay and Carter, 2020). Similar cases have already occurred in Chile, such as that of Chaiten, which was destroyed in 2008 by the explosion of the volcano of the same name, followed by a landslide (Mandujano et al., 2015). As a result, entire families were left without the possibility of returning to their homes. Many families have come back (some of them never left) (Espinoza et al., 2015), and the village has become an important tourist and residential area.

The mobility or immobility of coastal communities can be caused by a number of factors. In particular, shifts in fishing grounds, perceptions of marine protected areas and species migration due to climate change play a crucial role. Previously, abundant species in traditional fishing grounds may be threatened with extinction or relocation, leading to changes in fishing practices. These changes lead to adjustments in fishing schedules, as seen in Samoa (Cassinat et al., 2022) due to changes in solar radiation and reduced fish stocks. Similarly, fishermen in the northern USA may need to expand their fishing boundaries or relocate (Papaioannou et al., 2021). Alternatively, fishing practices may decline, leading fishermen to diversify their income into the recreational passenger service.

In Lenga, it became clear that the community would prefer to adopt the same strategy they have used in other situations, rather than relocate. Based on their strong sense of community, they would either switch to another economic activity or move together to a safer place nearby if sea level rise or strong storm surges became a major problem but the decision would be made as a group.

However, it is crucial to acknowledge that older generations identify certain areas in the settlement as hazardous. Advocating for this perspective can lead to dialogue and understanding and ultimately to the relocation of the population. It is important that the pursuit of social and climate justice be at the forefront of any intervention.

Implications for policy and practice

This study of climate change adaptation in Caleta Lenga provides several insights that can guide policies and practices to strengthen the adaptive capacity and resilience of coastal communities. Recommendations for policymakers, community leaders and other stakeholders emphasize the importance of supporting community-based adaptation. This includes developing policies that recognize local knowledge and practices in climate adaptation strategies and establishing robust frameworks for community participation in climate adaptation decision-making processes. Strengthening education initiatives is also critical and requires the implementation of comprehensive climate change education programmes tailored to local contexts. Initiatives that facilitate the intergenerational transfer of traditional knowledge should be supported. In addition, economic activities need to be diversified through policies that support the diversification of livelihoods in coastal communities, particularly in the transition from traditional fishing to sustainable tourism, providing resources and training for new economic opportunities that can withstand the impacts of climate change is also essential.

Improving infrastructure and disaster preparedness is also a key recommendation. This includes investing in climate-resilient infrastructure, such as safe evacuation routes and resilience hubs, and developing comprehensive disaster preparedness plans that incorporate local knowledge and practices. The protection and restoration of coastal ecosystems, such as dunes and salt marshes, should also be prioritized, given their role in climate adaptation and mitigation. Policies should support community-led conservation efforts. Collaborative governance should be promoted, with mechanisms for cooperation between local communities, government agencies and scientific institutions in the development and implementation of adaptation strategies. It is essential that national and regional climate policies, such as Chile’s Framework Law on Climate Change, are effectively translated into local action plans. Finally, ongoing research and monitoring should be supported, with funding allocated for long-term studies on the effectiveness of different adaptation strategies in coastal communities, and for the establishment of community-based monitoring systems to track environmental changes and the impacts of adaptation measures. These recommendations, if implemented, can help coastal communities like Caleta Lenga build long-term resilience to climate change while preserving their unique cultural and environmental heritage. The proposed strategies should be flexible and adaptable, allowing for continuous learning and adjustment as climate conditions evolve.

Conclusion and recommendations

The Caleta Lenga case study offers valuable insights into developing effective adaptation strategies for coastal communities facing the impacts of climate change. Preserving ancestral practices and knowledge is crucial for fostering a sense of belonging and enhancing community resilience, with Caleta Lenga’s strong sense of community and adaptive culture serving as a model for other coastal communities. Encouraging community preparedness and fostering networks for rapid response can help reduce the impact of climate-related disasters, as demonstrated by the community’s response to various challenges such as earthquakes, oil spills and the COVID-19 pandemic, which underscores the importance of community solidarity and collective action in times of crisis.

Coastal communities must adapt to the changing environmental conditions that affect traditional livelihoods, such as fishing, by diversifying economic activities and exploring alternative income sources like tourism or recreational services. The potential for tourism development in Caleta Lenga highlights the need to balance the utilization of natural resources with climate change adaptation measures, such as developing safe infrastructure like evacuation routes and resilience hubs, which can simultaneously support tourism opportunities and community resilience. When considering relocation as an adaptation strategy, it is essential to understand and prioritize the preferences and values of the community, maintaining cultural and social ties to the land as a key consideration when deciding between relocation and in-place adaptation.

Although some members of the Caleta Lenga community are knowledgeable about climate change, it is not a universal characteristic, and improving education and information dissemination on climate, environmental and sustainable practices is crucial for helping people understand and prepare for potential future threats. This study emphasizes the importance of community-based adaptation initiatives that are rooted in local knowledge and culture, despite the community’s resilience and solidarity, varying perceptions of climate change impacts necessitate better education and information dissemination.

The potential for tourism development and climate adaptation measures in Caleta Lenga offers opportunities to promote community cohesion and resilience. However, the possibility of relocation requires careful consideration and highlights the significance of informed decision-making and collective empowerment. In conclusion, this study provides valuable insights into effective pathways for climate resilience in vulnerable coastal communities, underlining the importance of adaptive strategies based on community solidarity and shared decision-making processes. By implementing these recommendations, coastal communities like Caleta Lenga can enhance their resilience and adaptability in the face of climate change.

The case study of Caleta Lenga offers valuable lessons that could potentially be scaled up to other coastal communities facing similar climate change challenges. Key strategies such as community-based adaptation, economic diversification, preservation of traditional knowledge and rapid response networks have proven effective in enhancing resilience. However, the success of these approaches in other locations will depend heavily on the unique social, cultural and ecological contexts of each community. To effectively scale up these lessons, a flexible and context-sensitive approach is crucial. This could involve conducting comprehensive community assessments, developing a toolkit of adaptable strategies, facilitating knowledge exchange between coastal communities, engaging in participatory planning processes and conducting ongoing monitoring and evaluation. It is important to recognize that while some principles may be universally applicable, specific strategies will need to be tailored to the unique circumstances of each community.

Although this study provides valuable insights into the experiences and adaptive strategies of the Caleta Lenga community in the face of climate change, it is important to acknowledge the limitations and potential obstacles encountered during the research process. One of the main challenges was the limited sample size, which may not fully represent the diverse perspectives within the community. The study relied on self-reported data from semi-structured interviews, which may be subject to recall bias or social desirability bias.

The reliance on self-reported data from semi-structured interviews introduces several potential biases that could affect the validity of the findings. Recall bias is of particular concern, especially when participants are asked about past events or changes over time, potentially leading to inaccuracies in the reported timeline of events or perceived severity of impacts. Social desirability bias, in turn, may lead participants to overemphasize their awareness of climate change or to present an overly optimistic picture of community resilience. Together, these biases could lead to a distorted representation of community experiences, perceptions and adaptation strategies related to climate change.

Addressing these limitations in future research would require a multifaceted approach. Significantly increasing the sample size would be critical, aiming for a more statistically representative portion of the community. Increasing the number of participants, supplementing interviews with anonymous surveys and local community workshops could help mitigate social desirability bias, and longitudinal studies or repeated measures over time could also help address issues of recall bias by capturing perceptions and experiences as they occur rather than relying on retrospective accounts.

Future research could explore the potential for scaling up the lessons learned from Caleta Lenga to other coastal communities facing similar challenges, taking into account the unique social, cultural and ecological contexts of each location. By addressing these limitations and expanding the scope of future research, we can continue to build a more robust understanding of community-based adaptation to climate change in coastal areas.

Figures

Figure 1.

Logical framework diagram

Figure 2.

Location of Caleta Lenga within Chilean territory

Figure 3.

Historical timeline showing major social, environmental, and cultural events affecting Caleta Lenga since the early 20th century

Table 1.

Main concepts, subcategories and mentions extracted from the interviews in Caleta Lenga

Category	Subcategory	Mention
Adaptation proposals	Coastal infrastructure	More edge to the sea. Stop flooding
	Environmental education	Social life education for young children the community environmental education
	Port infrastructure	Pier. With important tourism but criminals arrive. Make known what happens
	Road infrastructure	Road to be able to use for emergencies. On the current road the wheels are punctured it is in poor condition
Changes in economic activities	From quarry/fishing to tourism	Quarry, petrox industry
		Quarry. Ceased functioning
		They were on the hill during the quarry time. Explosive tourism
Community preparedness assessment	Ability to survive	Anything is survived
	Economic opportunity	It is even convenient more sales can be generated
	Lack of information	Lack information about climate change, they live from the sea are prepared, they have versatility and life lessons
Learnings transmitted	Perseverance	Perseverance
	Work	Keep working to get along with people
		My father: work. Sell seafood, the grandfather. With a cart
	Work and effort	Work. Early work perseverance. Effort
Observations of changes in the environment	Changes in the river	Completely dries up the wetland, the river is embanked after the earthquake. Risk of disappearing the beach shore
		Stagnant river
		The river dries up they cannot keep the boats
	Variation of fish and seafood	Variation of algae, change in temperatures, change in rainfall
		Swells, fluctuation of marsh water, variation of fish, variation of seafood, variation of algae
		Variation of fish, variation of seafood, change in temperatures, change in rainfall, variation in sea temperature
Past–present comparisons	Abundance before	Before the Jureles shoaled due to their abundance now you have to go out and look for the fish by boat
	More products before	There was a current, before there was presence of Nape, macha and choritos, there was a lot of water in the wetland
	More water in wetland before	There was a current before there was presence of Nape macha and choritos there was a lot of water in the wetland

Source: Created by the authors