Introduction to the special issue

Citation

Yuen, T.W.W. and Leung, Y.W. (2016), "Introduction to the special issue", Asian Education and Development Studies, Vol. 5 No. 1. https://doi.org/10.1108/AEDS-10-2015-0053

Introduction to the special issue

Article Type: Editorial From: Asian Education and Development Studies, Volume 5, Issue 1.

Democracy has been embraced as the ideal form of government since the end of the Second World War. The rights of the people to elect their government through periodically held free and fair elections and to take part in different participation have been stipulated in human rights documents of the United Nations.

Although there are different forms of democratic systems, it should be noted that the merits of a democratic system is firmly grounded on the civic qualities of the people as democracy is a platform through which the general will of the people is put into practice under the principles of popular sovereignty and elected public institutions. In this regard, whether the people are willing to participate actively in politics, including but not limited to occasional elections, and to do so with desirable qualities, such as being open-minded, peaceful, rational, critical-minded and justice-oriented, are crucial. This must start with the younger generations as they represent the future of our society.

The call for education for democratic citizenship in different countries has highlighted this reality and has become important agenda for citizenship education planners and educators. Such education for democratic citizenship should not be construed as relevant only to young people about to/after reaching the voting age as political participation in a democratic system comprises more than periodic elections. Neither should the nurturing of civic qualities be narrowly confined only to education within schools, given that there can be political socializing agents other than schools. The development of civic qualities required by voters indeed should start much earlier. Schools of course are an important context for the development of civic qualities. But even within the school context, one should pay attention to the formal curriculum as well as the informal and hidden curriculum, including school ethos, student councils and students' involvement in school governance, as they can be an effective means for cultivating of democratic attitudes and competences.

The present special issue is devoted to this important topic of citizenship education in the twenty-first century and aims to explore how youth, including in particular students, can develop in terms of civic qualities, with their experiences of participation; and how education can prepare them for such participation. Participation should be construed here more broadly to comprise, inter alia, participation inside schools and participation in the society at large.

As this is an interesting topic in which sharing of international experiences can be most illuminating, and papers included in this issue comprise works from scholars employed in citizenship education in different countries. It is hoped that this issue can add to the literature of citizenship education with youth participation as a focus and can be of reference value to citizenship education planners at both government and school levels. It is also pertinent for teachers and the general public who are interested in civic qualities and citizenship education.

In order to share with readers the development in countries which differ both in terms of the nature and degree of democratic development, this special issue comprises papers from different areas in the Pacific Rim, namely Hong Kong, Macao, Singapore and Australia. The UK played an important part in shaping the modern history of Asia in terms both of education and political development. Hence, its story is also covered in this issue.

Yuen, Leung and Lu examined the role of the controversial subject Liberal Studies in the context of Hong Kong with particular attention to whether the subject can contribute to citizenship education of the youth and the relationship of it with youth social participation. Sim and Krishnasamy examined, in the context of Singapore, students' understanding of democracy and how it is affected by their school education and the community. Henderson and Tudball of Australia, on the other hand, explored from the perspective of democratic citizenship education the notion of education for sustainability. The focus is on the development of action competence of Australian students in the course of their participation in the Australian Sustainable Schools' Initiative. Vong argued, in the context of Macau, that the state has used school education, in general, and citizenship education in particular, to effect the strengthening of its governability. Foucault's analytical framework, and in particular, the two concepts of "governmentality" and "technologies of the self" were engaged in the discussion. In the case of the UK, Davies and Chong explained that citizenship in England is at risk of decline since 2010, after being accorded a high level of interest and receiving considerable research support in the period from 1998 to 2010. Teaching of democratic citizenship now meets with challenges following the victory of Conservative Party in the 2010 election and the subsequent fall in status of citizenship education, and the shift in direction in favor of understanding the political/legal systems, volunteering, money management and character building.

Though the authors in this special issue were discussing from their own social context, it is interesting to note a number of common concerns, applicable to some, if not all, of the countries. To begin with, there was a shared view about the importance of nurturing youth through education to support the development of democratic systems. Such qualities that should be developed among youth cover a wide range of attributes and some of them as discussed in this issue comprise: being able to discuss controversial issues rationally and making informed judgment, action competence, political knowledge and civility.

Opportunities to nurture civic qualities, as reflected by articles in this special issue, span the entire learning spectrum the schools can offer, comprising the formal curriculum (subject teaching), informal curriculum (extra-curricular activities) and even the hidden curriculum (school ethos) of the school. It can indeed comprise participation opportunities of a community nature that the students can bank on. The involvement of the Australian students in the Australian Sustainable Schools' Initiative best illustrates this. Though different subjects in the formal curriculum within school can contribute to citizenship education, discussions in this issue suggests that some subjects can play a more important role than others. Such are the cases of Liberal Studies in Hong Kong and that of Social Studies in Singapore. Liberal Studies in the Hong Kong context was also reported by the researchers as being able to present students with a fairer representation of controversial issues that in return help them in making informed judgment when they participate in social actions. These "crucial subjects" often are related to politics and understanding of social issues. However, it can also be derived from the discussion in this special issue that only when appropriate teaching pedagogy is adopted, in which the teachers are open-minded and willing to listen to their students rather than resorting to bookish or rote learning, that the positive impact of nurturing democratic qualities can be fully realized. Such democratic style of the teachers in teaching and a more open and democratic school governance that allows student participation can be important hidden curriculum from which education for democratic citizenship can be achieved.

Readers of this special issue can also discern from the discussion that citizenship education doesn't operate in a vacuum and can indeed be affected by politics. The change both in status and direction of English citizenship education reflects impact of partisan politics. On the other hand, the relatively conservative nature of the polity of Singapore is also found to have an impact on the substance of citizenship education and the docile nature of the students. In the case of Hong Kong, arguments relating to the development of the political system and the massive protest arising from it both created tension for the teaching of politics in schools and rendered the subject Liberal Studies controversial. It is also noteworthy that citizenship education can be more than just an educational matter when it is sought as an instrument of governance. In the case of Macao, the author engaged Foucault's theories in the analysis. Accordingly, Macao's education in general, and citizenship education in particular, has been made use of to buttress governance both before and after the transfer of sovereignty. The relationship between the concern of governance and citizenship education can indeed be found in other Asian countries. In Hong Kong, for example, there was depoliticization and deliberate attempts to avoid discussion of national identity issue before 1997 to suit the interest of the colonial regime. Then, after the reunification with China, national education and the promotion of patriotism seem to top the agenda of citizenship education.

Finally, while this special issue covers stories from different countries with different social and political contexts, it is indeed interesting to learn that participation, though not necessarily related to the traditional notion of joining political parties and engaging in partisan election activities, are evident among youth. It may range from voluntary work to community project development to taking part in social actions to advance a political course. In addition, youth are also found to have their own views over social and political issues and many of them are vocal and determined in pursuing their cause. Some, even in a more conservative country such as Singapore, can also be critical of the government even if they cannot get the desired feedback. It is against this background the present special issue is released. We hope that the issue can be of interest to those who are interested in citizenship education; and can assist policy makers who are working with nurturing youth to build up the democratic systems in both government and education sectors.

Assistant Professor Timothy Wai Wa Yuen and Associate Professor Yan Wing Leung - The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong, China