Index
ISBN: 978-1-83982-937-6, eISBN: 978-1-83982-936-9
Publication date: 29 November 2021
Citation
(2021), "Index", Dashper, K. (Ed.) Sport, Gender and Mega-Events (Emerald Studies in Sport and Gender), Emerald Publishing Limited, Leeds, pp. 247-255. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-83982-936-920211024
Publisher
:Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2022 by Emerald Publishing Limited
INDEX
Acarajé
, 150, 156–157
and Copa Race–Class–Gender disorder, 157–159
Adams, Nicola (British boxer), 14–15
Advantage theory, 47–48
Africa Cup of Nations, 1
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome, 33–34
Asian Games, 1, 6
Asociación de Clubes de Fútbol Femenino (ACFF), 194
Athlete. See also Male elite athletes
activism, 135
elite, 36–37
female, 33–34, 134–136
Inter* athletes, 239
in particular, 33–34
passports, 240
Trans* athletes, 37, 239
Athletics South Africa (ASA), 39
Australian Grand Prix. See Formula One
Baianas
, 15, 17, 150, 156–157, 239–240
Baianas Lives Matter, 155–156
Barcelona
, 188
Barr body test, 36
‘Biological men’, 47
Biological passport, 37
Black, Asian and minority ethnics (BAME), 172
Black Brazilian women, 239–240
Black feminism, 17
in Brazil, 151, 153, 155
Black feminists, 154–155
Blanchard, Alana (surfer), 136
Brazil
Black feminism in, 151, 153, 155
gender metaphor in Brazilian, 151–152
Bronze, Lucy (England), 137
Carneiro, Sueli, 154
Carnival, 172
Chand, Dutee (Indian sprinter), 38–39
Climate change, environment and, 244
Club Deportivo Tacón
, 192–193
Colonial/Modern Gender System, 45
Combat sports, 8–9
Commonwealth Games, 1, 6, 12
Competition, 2–3
Competitive sports, 9
Copa Race–Class–Gender disorder, 157–159
Coping strategies, 77
Cost, 3
Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), 38–39
COVID-19 pandemic, 1, 240–241
Critical feminist research approach, 207–209
Cultural performance, 171
efficacy of, 166
Dean, Christopher, 163–164
Dichotomous sex, 35
Differences of sexual development (DSD), 34, 39
women with, 40
Direct costs, 3
Discrimination, ongoing, 241–242
Diversity, 156
Do Nothing Bitch (DNB), 140–141
Elaborated Social Identity Model (ESIM), 94–95, 103
Elite athletes, 36–37
Elite sport, 33
Ellie Soutter (snowboarder), 74
Emotion management, 76
English disease, 93
Environment and climate change, 244
Equality, 39–40
gender, 21–22
Equestrian sport, 14
Estudos Feministas (Feminist Studies), 154
Ethical relativism, 59, 63–64
European Athletic Championships, 35
Events, 2–3
‘Everyday resistance’ concept, 152–153
Fair competition, 33
Fair fights, 98
Fairness, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
in sport mega-events, 37–39
Familiarisation, 209
Fan ID, 170
Fan(s)
Fan zones, 170
at football mega-events, 93–94
presence and absence of, 99–101
violence, 7
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), 1, 149
FIFA Men’s World Cup, 4, 6–7
FIFA Women’s World Cup, 6–7
General, 143
Rights, 141
Scandal, 168
Female
athletes, 33–34, 134–136
sport mega-events, 188
sports and athletes, 9
Feminism
black, 17
liberal, 17
multiple, 18
multitude of, 16–17
neoliberal, 11, 18
post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
postcolonial, 17–18
Third-wave feminism, 11
Feminist
commentators, 201–202
sport studies, 135–136
sports media scholars, 136–137
thematic analysis, 136
FIFA Men’s World Cup, 163
Brazil (2014), 21
in Qatar (2022), 242
Russia (2018), 10–11, 106–107
FIFA Women’s World Cup, 57
‘Dare to Shine’, 133–134
France (2019), 133–135
methodology, 136–138
Rapinoe, Megan, 134–135
self-disclosure as statement, 140–141
self-empowerment and politics, 141–143
from self-love to equal love, 138–139
theoretical framework, 135–136
FIFA Women’s World Cup Now (live Twitter show), 57
Fischer, Nilla (Sweden), 137
Flintoff, Freddie (cricket player), 74
Flints Crew at Spartak Moscow, 97–98
Fluidity, 17
Football
cultural role, 93
fan violence at, 93–94
FIFA Men’s World Cup, Russia (2018), 106–107
football-related disorder, 98
gender (dis)order and, 151–152
historical, 93
masculinity, football and violence, 92
mega-events, 91
participation, 1–2
pay, 134–135
presence and absence of fan violence at football mega-events, 99–101
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 101–106
Football Association (FA), 74
Football Banning Orders (FBOs), 94
Football hooliganism, 93, 107–108
evolution in England, 92
at mega-events, 94–95
policing and policy, 94–95
in Russian Federation, 96–99
subcultural violence and nationalism, 95–96
Football World Cup (FWC), 92, 163–164, 221–222
Carnival, 172
cultural performance, 171
diversity programme, 177–178
effectiveness of technological performance, 165–166
efficacy of cultural performance, 166
efficiency of organisational performance, 165
feeling, 163–164
getting power, 166–169
harder, faster, better, stronger, 174–176
investigating football fan performances, 164–165
Iranian women, 177
organisational performance and efficiency, 170
perceptions of Russia, 173
public debate in Russia, 178
in Russia, 164
shared experience, 180–181
sport mega-events, 176, 181
technological performance, 170–171
traditional values, 179–180
Forest fights. See Fair fights
Formula One, 113–114
as (gendered) ‘glamorous’ event, 116–117
drivers, 113
grid girls, 120
macho racers, 117–120
as mega-event, 113, 115–116
ornamental females, 120–124
and spectacle, 115–116
Fox Sports, 57
Free testosterone (fT), 43–44
Gama, Sara (Italy), 137
Gender, 33, 45, 47, 239
binary, 118
differences in sports media, 222–225
equity, 221–222
gender equality, sport mega-events and search for, 187–188
gender trouble and sport mega-events, 13–15
gender/nationality, intermingling of, 225–227
identity in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
(in)equality, 16
inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
lack of media exposure, 222–223
linguistic depiction, 224–225
marking, 13
metaphor in Brazilian, 151–152
sexism, 120
sport and, 6–10
sport mega-events, gender and mediatisation, 10–13
stereotypes, 45–46
theorising gender and sport mega-events, 15–18
verification, 39–40
visual depiction, 223–224
Gender (dis)order
Acarajé and Copa Race–Class–Gender disorder, 157–159
Baianas, Acarajé and mega-events gendered order, 156–157
Baianas Lives Matter, 155–156
black feminism in Brazil, 153–155
everyday resistance, 152–153
football, 151–152
Gender stereotypes, 59–60
in sport media, 60–61
Gendered dynamics, 113
Gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
‘Gladiators’ of Spartak Moscow, 99–100
Glamour, 20, 113, 116–117
Global Health, 240–241
Global North, 242
Global South, 242, 244
Golf
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Solheim Cup, 6, 209–210
Hansen, Caroline Graham (Norway), 137
Hashimoto, Seiko (Japan’s Olympic minister), 242
Hegemonic masculinity, 7, 18
Hi-tech racing, 113
Hooligan(s), 91
Hooliganism, 7, 91
England/’Old Skool’, 100
football hooliganism evolution in England, 92
Russian Style, 98
violence, 95–96
Human rights, 243
‘Hybrid’ technology, 120
Hybridity, 17
Hyper-masculine nationalist identity, 100
Hyperandrogenism, 38, 43–45, 47
IAAF Policy on Gender Verification, 38
Inclusive masculinity, 74, 118
Inclusive policies, 34, 49–50
Indianapolis 500, 115–116
IndyCar, 120–121
Infantino, Gianni (FIFA President), 133–134
Inter* athletes, 239
Inter*sex, 37–38
Inter*sex athletes, 37–38
Inter*sex people, 33–34
International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF), 9, 33
International Broadcast Centre (IBC), 170–171
International crises, 1
International Federation of Football Associations (FIFA), 190–191
International Olympic Committee (IOC), 4, 33, 168, 240
International sport, 202–203
competitions, 227–234
Intersex, 39–40
sports competitions, 227–234
Iranian women, 177
Kellner, 115
Kelly Catlin (cyclist), 74
Kłobukowska, Ewa, 36
“Known hooligans” movement, 94–95
Ladies European Tour (LET), 201
Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), 201
Lambert, Elizabeth (University of New Mexico soccer player), 61
Le Mans, 120–121
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer (LGBTQ+), 15
rights, 168
Liberal feminism, 17
Liberal feminist approach, 16–17
Linguistic depiction, 224–225, 233–234
Macho racers, 117–120
Male elite athletes, 73
athlete role models and recovery, 84–87
displaying vulnerability, 80–82
interpretative analysis, 75–76
mental health suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
methods and approach to study, 75–77
nuance of suffering in sport, 75
sport and mental health, 74–75
sport as coping mechanism, 82–84
Marozsan, Dzseinifer (Germany), 137
Masculine hegemonic entrenchment, 205
Masculinity, 75
aggressive, 91
football, violence and, 92
hegemonic, 117–118
hyper, 7
inclusive, 74, 118
Masculinity in sport, 57–58
McKinnon’s theory, 49–50
Media
coverage, 11
framing of sports, 12
lack of media exposure, 222–223, 228, 232
mediatisation, 10–13
representation, 11
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
traditional–print and TV, 243
women athletes in, 59–60
Mediated reach, 3
Mediatisation, 10, 13, 243
of sport events, 116
Medico-scientific foundation, 40–45
Mega-event(s), 1–3, 12, 241
gendered order, 156–157
hosting, 3
masculine hegemony in, 13–14
meaning, 6
Mental health, 75–76
and male elite athletes, 74–75
suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
Mental toughness, 75
Minimum pay of female professional players, 193–194
Monaco Grand Prix, 115–116
Montreal Summer Olympics (1976), 4
Morgan, Alex, 64–65
Motor-racing events, 115–116
Motorsport, 119
‘Mulheres negras’ movement, 153
Multiplicity, 17
National identity
in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
gender differences in sports media, 222–225
intermingling of gender/nationality, 225–227
international, intersex sports competitions, 227–234
National proxy warriors, 210–212
National sport federations (NSFs), 195
Nationalism, 91, 93, 95–96
Nationality, 239
Neo-colonial fetishism, 35
Neoliberal feminisms, 18
‘New’ media, 11
Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), 154
Nuance of suffering in sport, 75
NVivo software, 77
‘Off-field’ case study, 150
Okolofutbola
, 98
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan violence, 100
Olympic Games, 5–7, 9–10, 34, 39–40, 58–59, 221–222
Olympic Games–Summer, 35
general, 1
Rio (2016), 10–11
Tokyo (2020/21), 39, 240
Olympic Games–Winter
general, 1
Sochi (2014), 167
Olympique Lyonnais
, 190–191
Olympique Marseille (OM), 101
Olympism, 5
Online academic databases, 39–40
Organisational performance, efficiency of, 165
Organised sport, 6–7
Ornamental females, 120–124
Pan American Games, 1, 6
Patrick, Danica (racing driver), 136
Perfectionism, 74–75
Performance
cultural, 171
gender, 1
organisational, 165
technical, 171
Plurality, 156
Polycystic ovary syndrome, 38
Post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
Postcolonial feminisms, 17–18
Primera Iberdrola
, 192
Professional sport, 48–49
Public perception, 241
PubMed, 39–40
Qatar FIFA Men’s World Cup (2022), 244
Race, 45, 47, 239
Racial hierarchies, 46
Racism
in football, 107, 139–140
Megan Rapinoe and, 134–135
in Russia, 169
Rapinoe, Megan (US footballer), 14–15, 64–65, 134–135, 137–139, 141, 239–240
empowerment, 142–143
most valuable player and top scorer of tournament in FIFA Women’s World Cup, 134–135
in national politics, 142–143
outspoken on multiple forums, 135
#USWNT, 143
Real Madrid
, 188
Red-Blue Warriors at CSKA, 97–98
Renard, Wendie (France), 137
Resistance concept, 152–153
Reto Iberdrola
, 192
Rights, scandal, 4
Rio Games (2016), 13
Role congruity theory (RCT), 59, 62
Rousey, Ronda (wrestler), 136
Rubiales, Luis (president of Spanish Football Federation), 192
Rugby World Cup, 6
Russia
Controversy, 167–168
Putin, 99
Russian Federation, football hooliganism in, 96–99
Russian football hooliganism, 108
USSR, 97–98
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Sanden, Shanice Van De (Holland), 137
Sarajevo Winter Olympics (1984), 4
Scopus, 39–40
Self-categorisation theory, 221–222
Self-disclosure, 136
as statement, 140–141
Self-empowerment, 136
and politics, 141–143
Self-love, 136
Semenya, Caster (African athlete), 9, 39
Separatism, 98
Sex, 35
verification tests, 33
Sex biology, 46
Sex integration, 14–15
Sex regulation, 39–40
Sex segregation, 39–40
Sex testing, 33–34, 39–40
analysis, 40
author’s position, 35
current debate on sex testing and fairness in sport mega-events, 37–39
history of, 35–37
hyperandrogenism, race and gender, 45–47
level playing field, 47–48
medico-scientific foundation and (bio)ethical considerations of current regulations, 40–45
methods, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
reviewed articles by themes, 41–43
in sport mega-events, 33
Sexuality, 9–10, 239
‘Sexually empowered’ female, 8–9
Sharapova, Maria (tennis players), 136
Shared experience, 180–181
Snapchat (instant-messaging application), 136–137
Social comparison theory, 225
Social identity theory in action, 225–227
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
Social role theory (SRT), 59, 62–63
Socioeconomic characteristics, 190
Sociology of sport, 1–2
Solheim Cup, 202
critical feminist research approach, 207–209
gender and national identity in(Golf) sport media, 204–206
as Golf, 209–210
national proxy warriors, 210–212
Pettersen the ‘Supermum’, 212–214
Ryder Cup’s little sister, 214–215
story of 2019 Solheim Cup, 206
(supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Women’s Golf and, 201–202
Spanish Football Federation, 187–188
Sport media, 12
gender differences in, 222–225
Sport mega-events. See also Football World Cup (FWC), 1–2, 6, 33–34, 58–59, 221, 239, 242–243
current debate on sex testing and fairness in, 37–39
gender, mediatisation and, 10–13
gender trouble and, 13–15
history of sex testing in, 35–37
and search for gender equality, 187–188
theorising gender and, 15–18
Sport(s), 1, 39–40
as coping mechanism, 82–84
and gender, 6–10
in Latin America, 150
male elite athletes in, 74–75
mental health suffering as antithesis of, 77–80
nuance of suffering in, 75
SPORTDiscus, 39–40
Stockholm Consensus, 37
Stylized exoticism, 122–123
Subcultural violence, 95–96
Summer Olympic Games. See also Winter Olympics Games, 1, 4, 6, 12
in Beijing (2008), 242–243
Los Angeles in 2028, 243
Paris in 2024, 243
in Rio, 240–241
(Supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Sydney Games (2000), 13
‘Symbolic politics’, 4–5
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
Carneiro, Sueli, 154
Carnival, 172
Chand, Dutee (Indian sprinter), 38–39
Climate change, environment and, 244
Club Deportivo Tacón
, 192–193
Colonial/Modern Gender System, 45
Combat sports, 8–9
Commonwealth Games, 1, 6, 12
Competition, 2–3
Competitive sports, 9
Copa Race–Class–Gender disorder, 157–159
Coping strategies, 77
Cost, 3
Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS), 38–39
COVID-19 pandemic, 1, 240–241
Critical feminist research approach, 207–209
Cultural performance, 171
efficacy of, 166
Dean, Christopher, 163–164
Dichotomous sex, 35
Differences of sexual development (DSD), 34, 39
women with, 40
Direct costs, 3
Discrimination, ongoing, 241–242
Diversity, 156
Do Nothing Bitch (DNB), 140–141
Elaborated Social Identity Model (ESIM), 94–95, 103
Elite athletes, 36–37
Elite sport, 33
Ellie Soutter (snowboarder), 74
Emotion management, 76
English disease, 93
Environment and climate change, 244
Equality, 39–40
gender, 21–22
Equestrian sport, 14
Estudos Feministas (Feminist Studies), 154
Ethical relativism, 59, 63–64
European Athletic Championships, 35
Events, 2–3
‘Everyday resistance’ concept, 152–153
Fair competition, 33
Fair fights, 98
Fairness, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
in sport mega-events, 37–39
Familiarisation, 209
Fan ID, 170
Fan(s)
Fan zones, 170
at football mega-events, 93–94
presence and absence of, 99–101
violence, 7
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), 1, 149
FIFA Men’s World Cup, 4, 6–7
FIFA Women’s World Cup, 6–7
General, 143
Rights, 141
Scandal, 168
Female
athletes, 33–34, 134–136
sport mega-events, 188
sports and athletes, 9
Feminism
black, 17
liberal, 17
multiple, 18
multitude of, 16–17
neoliberal, 11, 18
post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
postcolonial, 17–18
Third-wave feminism, 11
Feminist
commentators, 201–202
sport studies, 135–136
sports media scholars, 136–137
thematic analysis, 136
FIFA Men’s World Cup, 163
Brazil (2014), 21
in Qatar (2022), 242
Russia (2018), 10–11, 106–107
FIFA Women’s World Cup, 57
‘Dare to Shine’, 133–134
France (2019), 133–135
methodology, 136–138
Rapinoe, Megan, 134–135
self-disclosure as statement, 140–141
self-empowerment and politics, 141–143
from self-love to equal love, 138–139
theoretical framework, 135–136
FIFA Women’s World Cup Now (live Twitter show), 57
Fischer, Nilla (Sweden), 137
Flintoff, Freddie (cricket player), 74
Flints Crew at Spartak Moscow, 97–98
Fluidity, 17
Football
cultural role, 93
fan violence at, 93–94
FIFA Men’s World Cup, Russia (2018), 106–107
football-related disorder, 98
gender (dis)order and, 151–152
historical, 93
masculinity, football and violence, 92
mega-events, 91
participation, 1–2
pay, 134–135
presence and absence of fan violence at football mega-events, 99–101
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 101–106
Football Association (FA), 74
Football Banning Orders (FBOs), 94
Football hooliganism, 93, 107–108
evolution in England, 92
at mega-events, 94–95
policing and policy, 94–95
in Russian Federation, 96–99
subcultural violence and nationalism, 95–96
Football World Cup (FWC), 92, 163–164, 221–222
Carnival, 172
cultural performance, 171
diversity programme, 177–178
effectiveness of technological performance, 165–166
efficacy of cultural performance, 166
efficiency of organisational performance, 165
feeling, 163–164
getting power, 166–169
harder, faster, better, stronger, 174–176
investigating football fan performances, 164–165
Iranian women, 177
organisational performance and efficiency, 170
perceptions of Russia, 173
public debate in Russia, 178
in Russia, 164
shared experience, 180–181
sport mega-events, 176, 181
technological performance, 170–171
traditional values, 179–180
Forest fights. See Fair fights
Formula One, 113–114
as (gendered) ‘glamorous’ event, 116–117
drivers, 113
grid girls, 120
macho racers, 117–120
as mega-event, 113, 115–116
ornamental females, 120–124
and spectacle, 115–116
Fox Sports, 57
Free testosterone (fT), 43–44
Gama, Sara (Italy), 137
Gender, 33, 45, 47, 239
binary, 118
differences in sports media, 222–225
equity, 221–222
gender equality, sport mega-events and search for, 187–188
gender trouble and sport mega-events, 13–15
gender/nationality, intermingling of, 225–227
identity in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
(in)equality, 16
inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
lack of media exposure, 222–223
linguistic depiction, 224–225
marking, 13
metaphor in Brazilian, 151–152
sexism, 120
sport and, 6–10
sport mega-events, gender and mediatisation, 10–13
stereotypes, 45–46
theorising gender and sport mega-events, 15–18
verification, 39–40
visual depiction, 223–224
Gender (dis)order
Acarajé and Copa Race–Class–Gender disorder, 157–159
Baianas, Acarajé and mega-events gendered order, 156–157
Baianas Lives Matter, 155–156
black feminism in Brazil, 153–155
everyday resistance, 152–153
football, 151–152
Gender stereotypes, 59–60
in sport media, 60–61
Gendered dynamics, 113
Gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
‘Gladiators’ of Spartak Moscow, 99–100
Glamour, 20, 113, 116–117
Global Health, 240–241
Global North, 242
Global South, 242, 244
Golf
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Solheim Cup, 6, 209–210
Hansen, Caroline Graham (Norway), 137
Hashimoto, Seiko (Japan’s Olympic minister), 242
Hegemonic masculinity, 7, 18
Hi-tech racing, 113
Hooligan(s), 91
Hooliganism, 7, 91
England/’Old Skool’, 100
football hooliganism evolution in England, 92
Russian Style, 98
violence, 95–96
Human rights, 243
‘Hybrid’ technology, 120
Hybridity, 17
Hyper-masculine nationalist identity, 100
Hyperandrogenism, 38, 43–45, 47
IAAF Policy on Gender Verification, 38
Inclusive masculinity, 74, 118
Inclusive policies, 34, 49–50
Indianapolis 500, 115–116
IndyCar, 120–121
Infantino, Gianni (FIFA President), 133–134
Inter* athletes, 239
Inter*sex, 37–38
Inter*sex athletes, 37–38
Inter*sex people, 33–34
International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF), 9, 33
International Broadcast Centre (IBC), 170–171
International crises, 1
International Federation of Football Associations (FIFA), 190–191
International Olympic Committee (IOC), 4, 33, 168, 240
International sport, 202–203
competitions, 227–234
Intersex, 39–40
sports competitions, 227–234
Iranian women, 177
Kellner, 115
Kelly Catlin (cyclist), 74
Kłobukowska, Ewa, 36
“Known hooligans” movement, 94–95
Ladies European Tour (LET), 201
Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), 201
Lambert, Elizabeth (University of New Mexico soccer player), 61
Le Mans, 120–121
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer (LGBTQ+), 15
rights, 168
Liberal feminism, 17
Liberal feminist approach, 16–17
Linguistic depiction, 224–225, 233–234
Macho racers, 117–120
Male elite athletes, 73
athlete role models and recovery, 84–87
displaying vulnerability, 80–82
interpretative analysis, 75–76
mental health suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
methods and approach to study, 75–77
nuance of suffering in sport, 75
sport and mental health, 74–75
sport as coping mechanism, 82–84
Marozsan, Dzseinifer (Germany), 137
Masculine hegemonic entrenchment, 205
Masculinity, 75
aggressive, 91
football, violence and, 92
hegemonic, 117–118
hyper, 7
inclusive, 74, 118
Masculinity in sport, 57–58
McKinnon’s theory, 49–50
Media
coverage, 11
framing of sports, 12
lack of media exposure, 222–223, 228, 232
mediatisation, 10–13
representation, 11
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
traditional–print and TV, 243
women athletes in, 59–60
Mediated reach, 3
Mediatisation, 10, 13, 243
of sport events, 116
Medico-scientific foundation, 40–45
Mega-event(s), 1–3, 12, 241
gendered order, 156–157
hosting, 3
masculine hegemony in, 13–14
meaning, 6
Mental health, 75–76
and male elite athletes, 74–75
suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
Mental toughness, 75
Minimum pay of female professional players, 193–194
Monaco Grand Prix, 115–116
Montreal Summer Olympics (1976), 4
Morgan, Alex, 64–65
Motor-racing events, 115–116
Motorsport, 119
‘Mulheres negras’ movement, 153
Multiplicity, 17
National identity
in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
gender differences in sports media, 222–225
intermingling of gender/nationality, 225–227
international, intersex sports competitions, 227–234
National proxy warriors, 210–212
National sport federations (NSFs), 195
Nationalism, 91, 93, 95–96
Nationality, 239
Neo-colonial fetishism, 35
Neoliberal feminisms, 18
‘New’ media, 11
Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), 154
Nuance of suffering in sport, 75
NVivo software, 77
‘Off-field’ case study, 150
Okolofutbola
, 98
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan violence, 100
Olympic Games, 5–7, 9–10, 34, 39–40, 58–59, 221–222
Olympic Games–Summer, 35
general, 1
Rio (2016), 10–11
Tokyo (2020/21), 39, 240
Olympic Games–Winter
general, 1
Sochi (2014), 167
Olympique Lyonnais
, 190–191
Olympique Marseille (OM), 101
Olympism, 5
Online academic databases, 39–40
Organisational performance, efficiency of, 165
Organised sport, 6–7
Ornamental females, 120–124
Pan American Games, 1, 6
Patrick, Danica (racing driver), 136
Perfectionism, 74–75
Performance
cultural, 171
gender, 1
organisational, 165
technical, 171
Plurality, 156
Polycystic ovary syndrome, 38
Post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
Postcolonial feminisms, 17–18
Primera Iberdrola
, 192
Professional sport, 48–49
Public perception, 241
PubMed, 39–40
Qatar FIFA Men’s World Cup (2022), 244
Race, 45, 47, 239
Racial hierarchies, 46
Racism
in football, 107, 139–140
Megan Rapinoe and, 134–135
in Russia, 169
Rapinoe, Megan (US footballer), 14–15, 64–65, 134–135, 137–139, 141, 239–240
empowerment, 142–143
most valuable player and top scorer of tournament in FIFA Women’s World Cup, 134–135
in national politics, 142–143
outspoken on multiple forums, 135
#USWNT, 143
Real Madrid
, 188
Red-Blue Warriors at CSKA, 97–98
Renard, Wendie (France), 137
Resistance concept, 152–153
Reto Iberdrola
, 192
Rights, scandal, 4
Rio Games (2016), 13
Role congruity theory (RCT), 59, 62
Rousey, Ronda (wrestler), 136
Rubiales, Luis (president of Spanish Football Federation), 192
Rugby World Cup, 6
Russia
Controversy, 167–168
Putin, 99
Russian Federation, football hooliganism in, 96–99
Russian football hooliganism, 108
USSR, 97–98
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Sanden, Shanice Van De (Holland), 137
Sarajevo Winter Olympics (1984), 4
Scopus, 39–40
Self-categorisation theory, 221–222
Self-disclosure, 136
as statement, 140–141
Self-empowerment, 136
and politics, 141–143
Self-love, 136
Semenya, Caster (African athlete), 9, 39
Separatism, 98
Sex, 35
verification tests, 33
Sex biology, 46
Sex integration, 14–15
Sex regulation, 39–40
Sex segregation, 39–40
Sex testing, 33–34, 39–40
analysis, 40
author’s position, 35
current debate on sex testing and fairness in sport mega-events, 37–39
history of, 35–37
hyperandrogenism, race and gender, 45–47
level playing field, 47–48
medico-scientific foundation and (bio)ethical considerations of current regulations, 40–45
methods, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
reviewed articles by themes, 41–43
in sport mega-events, 33
Sexuality, 9–10, 239
‘Sexually empowered’ female, 8–9
Sharapova, Maria (tennis players), 136
Shared experience, 180–181
Snapchat (instant-messaging application), 136–137
Social comparison theory, 225
Social identity theory in action, 225–227
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
Social role theory (SRT), 59, 62–63
Socioeconomic characteristics, 190
Sociology of sport, 1–2
Solheim Cup, 202
critical feminist research approach, 207–209
gender and national identity in(Golf) sport media, 204–206
as Golf, 209–210
national proxy warriors, 210–212
Pettersen the ‘Supermum’, 212–214
Ryder Cup’s little sister, 214–215
story of 2019 Solheim Cup, 206
(supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Women’s Golf and, 201–202
Spanish Football Federation, 187–188
Sport media, 12
gender differences in, 222–225
Sport mega-events. See also Football World Cup (FWC), 1–2, 6, 33–34, 58–59, 221, 239, 242–243
current debate on sex testing and fairness in, 37–39
gender, mediatisation and, 10–13
gender trouble and, 13–15
history of sex testing in, 35–37
and search for gender equality, 187–188
theorising gender and, 15–18
Sport(s), 1, 39–40
as coping mechanism, 82–84
and gender, 6–10
in Latin America, 150
male elite athletes in, 74–75
mental health suffering as antithesis of, 77–80
nuance of suffering in, 75
SPORTDiscus, 39–40
Stockholm Consensus, 37
Stylized exoticism, 122–123
Subcultural violence, 95–96
Summer Olympic Games. See also Winter Olympics Games, 1, 4, 6, 12
in Beijing (2008), 242–243
Los Angeles in 2028, 243
Paris in 2024, 243
in Rio, 240–241
(Supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Sydney Games (2000), 13
‘Symbolic politics’, 4–5
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
Elaborated Social Identity Model (ESIM), 94–95, 103
Elite athletes, 36–37
Elite sport, 33
Ellie Soutter (snowboarder), 74
Emotion management, 76
English disease, 93
Environment and climate change, 244
Equality, 39–40
gender, 21–22
Equestrian sport, 14
Estudos Feministas (Feminist Studies), 154
Ethical relativism, 59, 63–64
European Athletic Championships, 35
Events, 2–3
‘Everyday resistance’ concept, 152–153
Fair competition, 33
Fair fights, 98
Fairness, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
in sport mega-events, 37–39
Familiarisation, 209
Fan ID, 170
Fan(s)
Fan zones, 170
at football mega-events, 93–94
presence and absence of, 99–101
violence, 7
Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), 1, 149
FIFA Men’s World Cup, 4, 6–7
FIFA Women’s World Cup, 6–7
General, 143
Rights, 141
Scandal, 168
Female
athletes, 33–34, 134–136
sport mega-events, 188
sports and athletes, 9
Feminism
black, 17
liberal, 17
multiple, 18
multitude of, 16–17
neoliberal, 11, 18
post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
postcolonial, 17–18
Third-wave feminism, 11
Feminist
commentators, 201–202
sport studies, 135–136
sports media scholars, 136–137
thematic analysis, 136
FIFA Men’s World Cup, 163
Brazil (2014), 21
in Qatar (2022), 242
Russia (2018), 10–11, 106–107
FIFA Women’s World Cup, 57
‘Dare to Shine’, 133–134
France (2019), 133–135
methodology, 136–138
Rapinoe, Megan, 134–135
self-disclosure as statement, 140–141
self-empowerment and politics, 141–143
from self-love to equal love, 138–139
theoretical framework, 135–136
FIFA Women’s World Cup Now (live Twitter show), 57
Fischer, Nilla (Sweden), 137
Flintoff, Freddie (cricket player), 74
Flints Crew at Spartak Moscow, 97–98
Fluidity, 17
Football
cultural role, 93
fan violence at, 93–94
FIFA Men’s World Cup, Russia (2018), 106–107
football-related disorder, 98
gender (dis)order and, 151–152
historical, 93
masculinity, football and violence, 92
mega-events, 91
participation, 1–2
pay, 134–135
presence and absence of fan violence at football mega-events, 99–101
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 101–106
Football Association (FA), 74
Football Banning Orders (FBOs), 94
Football hooliganism, 93, 107–108
evolution in England, 92
at mega-events, 94–95
policing and policy, 94–95
in Russian Federation, 96–99
subcultural violence and nationalism, 95–96
Football World Cup (FWC), 92, 163–164, 221–222
Carnival, 172
cultural performance, 171
diversity programme, 177–178
effectiveness of technological performance, 165–166
efficacy of cultural performance, 166
efficiency of organisational performance, 165
feeling, 163–164
getting power, 166–169
harder, faster, better, stronger, 174–176
investigating football fan performances, 164–165
Iranian women, 177
organisational performance and efficiency, 170
perceptions of Russia, 173
public debate in Russia, 178
in Russia, 164
shared experience, 180–181
sport mega-events, 176, 181
technological performance, 170–171
traditional values, 179–180
Forest fights. See Fair fights
Formula One, 113–114
as (gendered) ‘glamorous’ event, 116–117
drivers, 113
grid girls, 120
macho racers, 117–120
as mega-event, 113, 115–116
ornamental females, 120–124
and spectacle, 115–116
Fox Sports, 57
Free testosterone (fT), 43–44
Gama, Sara (Italy), 137
Gender, 33, 45, 47, 239
binary, 118
differences in sports media, 222–225
equity, 221–222
gender equality, sport mega-events and search for, 187–188
gender trouble and sport mega-events, 13–15
gender/nationality, intermingling of, 225–227
identity in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
(in)equality, 16
inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
lack of media exposure, 222–223
linguistic depiction, 224–225
marking, 13
metaphor in Brazilian, 151–152
sexism, 120
sport and, 6–10
sport mega-events, gender and mediatisation, 10–13
stereotypes, 45–46
theorising gender and sport mega-events, 15–18
verification, 39–40
visual depiction, 223–224
Gender (dis)order
Acarajé and Copa Race–Class–Gender disorder, 157–159
Baianas, Acarajé and mega-events gendered order, 156–157
Baianas Lives Matter, 155–156
black feminism in Brazil, 153–155
everyday resistance, 152–153
football, 151–152
Gender stereotypes, 59–60
in sport media, 60–61
Gendered dynamics, 113
Gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
‘Gladiators’ of Spartak Moscow, 99–100
Glamour, 20, 113, 116–117
Global Health, 240–241
Global North, 242
Global South, 242, 244
Golf
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Solheim Cup, 6, 209–210
Hansen, Caroline Graham (Norway), 137
Hashimoto, Seiko (Japan’s Olympic minister), 242
Hegemonic masculinity, 7, 18
Hi-tech racing, 113
Hooligan(s), 91
Hooliganism, 7, 91
England/’Old Skool’, 100
football hooliganism evolution in England, 92
Russian Style, 98
violence, 95–96
Human rights, 243
‘Hybrid’ technology, 120
Hybridity, 17
Hyper-masculine nationalist identity, 100
Hyperandrogenism, 38, 43–45, 47
IAAF Policy on Gender Verification, 38
Inclusive masculinity, 74, 118
Inclusive policies, 34, 49–50
Indianapolis 500, 115–116
IndyCar, 120–121
Infantino, Gianni (FIFA President), 133–134
Inter* athletes, 239
Inter*sex, 37–38
Inter*sex athletes, 37–38
Inter*sex people, 33–34
International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF), 9, 33
International Broadcast Centre (IBC), 170–171
International crises, 1
International Federation of Football Associations (FIFA), 190–191
International Olympic Committee (IOC), 4, 33, 168, 240
International sport, 202–203
competitions, 227–234
Intersex, 39–40
sports competitions, 227–234
Iranian women, 177
Kellner, 115
Kelly Catlin (cyclist), 74
Kłobukowska, Ewa, 36
“Known hooligans” movement, 94–95
Ladies European Tour (LET), 201
Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), 201
Lambert, Elizabeth (University of New Mexico soccer player), 61
Le Mans, 120–121
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer (LGBTQ+), 15
rights, 168
Liberal feminism, 17
Liberal feminist approach, 16–17
Linguistic depiction, 224–225, 233–234
Macho racers, 117–120
Male elite athletes, 73
athlete role models and recovery, 84–87
displaying vulnerability, 80–82
interpretative analysis, 75–76
mental health suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
methods and approach to study, 75–77
nuance of suffering in sport, 75
sport and mental health, 74–75
sport as coping mechanism, 82–84
Marozsan, Dzseinifer (Germany), 137
Masculine hegemonic entrenchment, 205
Masculinity, 75
aggressive, 91
football, violence and, 92
hegemonic, 117–118
hyper, 7
inclusive, 74, 118
Masculinity in sport, 57–58
McKinnon’s theory, 49–50
Media
coverage, 11
framing of sports, 12
lack of media exposure, 222–223, 228, 232
mediatisation, 10–13
representation, 11
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
traditional–print and TV, 243
women athletes in, 59–60
Mediated reach, 3
Mediatisation, 10, 13, 243
of sport events, 116
Medico-scientific foundation, 40–45
Mega-event(s), 1–3, 12, 241
gendered order, 156–157
hosting, 3
masculine hegemony in, 13–14
meaning, 6
Mental health, 75–76
and male elite athletes, 74–75
suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
Mental toughness, 75
Minimum pay of female professional players, 193–194
Monaco Grand Prix, 115–116
Montreal Summer Olympics (1976), 4
Morgan, Alex, 64–65
Motor-racing events, 115–116
Motorsport, 119
‘Mulheres negras’ movement, 153
Multiplicity, 17
National identity
in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
gender differences in sports media, 222–225
intermingling of gender/nationality, 225–227
international, intersex sports competitions, 227–234
National proxy warriors, 210–212
National sport federations (NSFs), 195
Nationalism, 91, 93, 95–96
Nationality, 239
Neo-colonial fetishism, 35
Neoliberal feminisms, 18
‘New’ media, 11
Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), 154
Nuance of suffering in sport, 75
NVivo software, 77
‘Off-field’ case study, 150
Okolofutbola
, 98
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan violence, 100
Olympic Games, 5–7, 9–10, 34, 39–40, 58–59, 221–222
Olympic Games–Summer, 35
general, 1
Rio (2016), 10–11
Tokyo (2020/21), 39, 240
Olympic Games–Winter
general, 1
Sochi (2014), 167
Olympique Lyonnais
, 190–191
Olympique Marseille (OM), 101
Olympism, 5
Online academic databases, 39–40
Organisational performance, efficiency of, 165
Organised sport, 6–7
Ornamental females, 120–124
Pan American Games, 1, 6
Patrick, Danica (racing driver), 136
Perfectionism, 74–75
Performance
cultural, 171
gender, 1
organisational, 165
technical, 171
Plurality, 156
Polycystic ovary syndrome, 38
Post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
Postcolonial feminisms, 17–18
Primera Iberdrola
, 192
Professional sport, 48–49
Public perception, 241
PubMed, 39–40
Qatar FIFA Men’s World Cup (2022), 244
Race, 45, 47, 239
Racial hierarchies, 46
Racism
in football, 107, 139–140
Megan Rapinoe and, 134–135
in Russia, 169
Rapinoe, Megan (US footballer), 14–15, 64–65, 134–135, 137–139, 141, 239–240
empowerment, 142–143
most valuable player and top scorer of tournament in FIFA Women’s World Cup, 134–135
in national politics, 142–143
outspoken on multiple forums, 135
#USWNT, 143
Real Madrid
, 188
Red-Blue Warriors at CSKA, 97–98
Renard, Wendie (France), 137
Resistance concept, 152–153
Reto Iberdrola
, 192
Rights, scandal, 4
Rio Games (2016), 13
Role congruity theory (RCT), 59, 62
Rousey, Ronda (wrestler), 136
Rubiales, Luis (president of Spanish Football Federation), 192
Rugby World Cup, 6
Russia
Controversy, 167–168
Putin, 99
Russian Federation, football hooliganism in, 96–99
Russian football hooliganism, 108
USSR, 97–98
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Sanden, Shanice Van De (Holland), 137
Sarajevo Winter Olympics (1984), 4
Scopus, 39–40
Self-categorisation theory, 221–222
Self-disclosure, 136
as statement, 140–141
Self-empowerment, 136
and politics, 141–143
Self-love, 136
Semenya, Caster (African athlete), 9, 39
Separatism, 98
Sex, 35
verification tests, 33
Sex biology, 46
Sex integration, 14–15
Sex regulation, 39–40
Sex segregation, 39–40
Sex testing, 33–34, 39–40
analysis, 40
author’s position, 35
current debate on sex testing and fairness in sport mega-events, 37–39
history of, 35–37
hyperandrogenism, race and gender, 45–47
level playing field, 47–48
medico-scientific foundation and (bio)ethical considerations of current regulations, 40–45
methods, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
reviewed articles by themes, 41–43
in sport mega-events, 33
Sexuality, 9–10, 239
‘Sexually empowered’ female, 8–9
Sharapova, Maria (tennis players), 136
Shared experience, 180–181
Snapchat (instant-messaging application), 136–137
Social comparison theory, 225
Social identity theory in action, 225–227
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
Social role theory (SRT), 59, 62–63
Socioeconomic characteristics, 190
Sociology of sport, 1–2
Solheim Cup, 202
critical feminist research approach, 207–209
gender and national identity in(Golf) sport media, 204–206
as Golf, 209–210
national proxy warriors, 210–212
Pettersen the ‘Supermum’, 212–214
Ryder Cup’s little sister, 214–215
story of 2019 Solheim Cup, 206
(supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Women’s Golf and, 201–202
Spanish Football Federation, 187–188
Sport media, 12
gender differences in, 222–225
Sport mega-events. See also Football World Cup (FWC), 1–2, 6, 33–34, 58–59, 221, 239, 242–243
current debate on sex testing and fairness in, 37–39
gender, mediatisation and, 10–13
gender trouble and, 13–15
history of sex testing in, 35–37
and search for gender equality, 187–188
theorising gender and, 15–18
Sport(s), 1, 39–40
as coping mechanism, 82–84
and gender, 6–10
in Latin America, 150
male elite athletes in, 74–75
mental health suffering as antithesis of, 77–80
nuance of suffering in, 75
SPORTDiscus, 39–40
Stockholm Consensus, 37
Stylized exoticism, 122–123
Subcultural violence, 95–96
Summer Olympic Games. See also Winter Olympics Games, 1, 4, 6, 12
in Beijing (2008), 242–243
Los Angeles in 2028, 243
Paris in 2024, 243
in Rio, 240–241
(Supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Sydney Games (2000), 13
‘Symbolic politics’, 4–5
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
Gama, Sara (Italy), 137
Gender, 33, 45, 47, 239
binary, 118
differences in sports media, 222–225
equity, 221–222
gender equality, sport mega-events and search for, 187–188
gender trouble and sport mega-events, 13–15
gender/nationality, intermingling of, 225–227
identity in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
(in)equality, 16
inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
lack of media exposure, 222–223
linguistic depiction, 224–225
marking, 13
metaphor in Brazilian, 151–152
sexism, 120
sport and, 6–10
sport mega-events, gender and mediatisation, 10–13
stereotypes, 45–46
theorising gender and sport mega-events, 15–18
verification, 39–40
visual depiction, 223–224
Gender (dis)order
Acarajé and Copa Race–Class–Gender disorder, 157–159
Baianas, Acarajé and mega-events gendered order, 156–157
Baianas Lives Matter, 155–156
black feminism in Brazil, 153–155
everyday resistance, 152–153
football, 151–152
Gender stereotypes, 59–60
in sport media, 60–61
Gendered dynamics, 113
Gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
‘Gladiators’ of Spartak Moscow, 99–100
Glamour, 20, 113, 116–117
Global Health, 240–241
Global North, 242
Global South, 242, 244
Golf
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Solheim Cup, 6, 209–210
Hansen, Caroline Graham (Norway), 137
Hashimoto, Seiko (Japan’s Olympic minister), 242
Hegemonic masculinity, 7, 18
Hi-tech racing, 113
Hooligan(s), 91
Hooliganism, 7, 91
England/’Old Skool’, 100
football hooliganism evolution in England, 92
Russian Style, 98
violence, 95–96
Human rights, 243
‘Hybrid’ technology, 120
Hybridity, 17
Hyper-masculine nationalist identity, 100
Hyperandrogenism, 38, 43–45, 47
IAAF Policy on Gender Verification, 38
Inclusive masculinity, 74, 118
Inclusive policies, 34, 49–50
Indianapolis 500, 115–116
IndyCar, 120–121
Infantino, Gianni (FIFA President), 133–134
Inter* athletes, 239
Inter*sex, 37–38
Inter*sex athletes, 37–38
Inter*sex people, 33–34
International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF), 9, 33
International Broadcast Centre (IBC), 170–171
International crises, 1
International Federation of Football Associations (FIFA), 190–191
International Olympic Committee (IOC), 4, 33, 168, 240
International sport, 202–203
competitions, 227–234
Intersex, 39–40
sports competitions, 227–234
Iranian women, 177
Kellner, 115
Kelly Catlin (cyclist), 74
Kłobukowska, Ewa, 36
“Known hooligans” movement, 94–95
Ladies European Tour (LET), 201
Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), 201
Lambert, Elizabeth (University of New Mexico soccer player), 61
Le Mans, 120–121
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer (LGBTQ+), 15
rights, 168
Liberal feminism, 17
Liberal feminist approach, 16–17
Linguistic depiction, 224–225, 233–234
Macho racers, 117–120
Male elite athletes, 73
athlete role models and recovery, 84–87
displaying vulnerability, 80–82
interpretative analysis, 75–76
mental health suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
methods and approach to study, 75–77
nuance of suffering in sport, 75
sport and mental health, 74–75
sport as coping mechanism, 82–84
Marozsan, Dzseinifer (Germany), 137
Masculine hegemonic entrenchment, 205
Masculinity, 75
aggressive, 91
football, violence and, 92
hegemonic, 117–118
hyper, 7
inclusive, 74, 118
Masculinity in sport, 57–58
McKinnon’s theory, 49–50
Media
coverage, 11
framing of sports, 12
lack of media exposure, 222–223, 228, 232
mediatisation, 10–13
representation, 11
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
traditional–print and TV, 243
women athletes in, 59–60
Mediated reach, 3
Mediatisation, 10, 13, 243
of sport events, 116
Medico-scientific foundation, 40–45
Mega-event(s), 1–3, 12, 241
gendered order, 156–157
hosting, 3
masculine hegemony in, 13–14
meaning, 6
Mental health, 75–76
and male elite athletes, 74–75
suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
Mental toughness, 75
Minimum pay of female professional players, 193–194
Monaco Grand Prix, 115–116
Montreal Summer Olympics (1976), 4
Morgan, Alex, 64–65
Motor-racing events, 115–116
Motorsport, 119
‘Mulheres negras’ movement, 153
Multiplicity, 17
National identity
in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
gender differences in sports media, 222–225
intermingling of gender/nationality, 225–227
international, intersex sports competitions, 227–234
National proxy warriors, 210–212
National sport federations (NSFs), 195
Nationalism, 91, 93, 95–96
Nationality, 239
Neo-colonial fetishism, 35
Neoliberal feminisms, 18
‘New’ media, 11
Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), 154
Nuance of suffering in sport, 75
NVivo software, 77
‘Off-field’ case study, 150
Okolofutbola
, 98
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan violence, 100
Olympic Games, 5–7, 9–10, 34, 39–40, 58–59, 221–222
Olympic Games–Summer, 35
general, 1
Rio (2016), 10–11
Tokyo (2020/21), 39, 240
Olympic Games–Winter
general, 1
Sochi (2014), 167
Olympique Lyonnais
, 190–191
Olympique Marseille (OM), 101
Olympism, 5
Online academic databases, 39–40
Organisational performance, efficiency of, 165
Organised sport, 6–7
Ornamental females, 120–124
Pan American Games, 1, 6
Patrick, Danica (racing driver), 136
Perfectionism, 74–75
Performance
cultural, 171
gender, 1
organisational, 165
technical, 171
Plurality, 156
Polycystic ovary syndrome, 38
Post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
Postcolonial feminisms, 17–18
Primera Iberdrola
, 192
Professional sport, 48–49
Public perception, 241
PubMed, 39–40
Qatar FIFA Men’s World Cup (2022), 244
Race, 45, 47, 239
Racial hierarchies, 46
Racism
in football, 107, 139–140
Megan Rapinoe and, 134–135
in Russia, 169
Rapinoe, Megan (US footballer), 14–15, 64–65, 134–135, 137–139, 141, 239–240
empowerment, 142–143
most valuable player and top scorer of tournament in FIFA Women’s World Cup, 134–135
in national politics, 142–143
outspoken on multiple forums, 135
#USWNT, 143
Real Madrid
, 188
Red-Blue Warriors at CSKA, 97–98
Renard, Wendie (France), 137
Resistance concept, 152–153
Reto Iberdrola
, 192
Rights, scandal, 4
Rio Games (2016), 13
Role congruity theory (RCT), 59, 62
Rousey, Ronda (wrestler), 136
Rubiales, Luis (president of Spanish Football Federation), 192
Rugby World Cup, 6
Russia
Controversy, 167–168
Putin, 99
Russian Federation, football hooliganism in, 96–99
Russian football hooliganism, 108
USSR, 97–98
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Sanden, Shanice Van De (Holland), 137
Sarajevo Winter Olympics (1984), 4
Scopus, 39–40
Self-categorisation theory, 221–222
Self-disclosure, 136
as statement, 140–141
Self-empowerment, 136
and politics, 141–143
Self-love, 136
Semenya, Caster (African athlete), 9, 39
Separatism, 98
Sex, 35
verification tests, 33
Sex biology, 46
Sex integration, 14–15
Sex regulation, 39–40
Sex segregation, 39–40
Sex testing, 33–34, 39–40
analysis, 40
author’s position, 35
current debate on sex testing and fairness in sport mega-events, 37–39
history of, 35–37
hyperandrogenism, race and gender, 45–47
level playing field, 47–48
medico-scientific foundation and (bio)ethical considerations of current regulations, 40–45
methods, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
reviewed articles by themes, 41–43
in sport mega-events, 33
Sexuality, 9–10, 239
‘Sexually empowered’ female, 8–9
Sharapova, Maria (tennis players), 136
Shared experience, 180–181
Snapchat (instant-messaging application), 136–137
Social comparison theory, 225
Social identity theory in action, 225–227
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
Social role theory (SRT), 59, 62–63
Socioeconomic characteristics, 190
Sociology of sport, 1–2
Solheim Cup, 202
critical feminist research approach, 207–209
gender and national identity in(Golf) sport media, 204–206
as Golf, 209–210
national proxy warriors, 210–212
Pettersen the ‘Supermum’, 212–214
Ryder Cup’s little sister, 214–215
story of 2019 Solheim Cup, 206
(supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Women’s Golf and, 201–202
Spanish Football Federation, 187–188
Sport media, 12
gender differences in, 222–225
Sport mega-events. See also Football World Cup (FWC), 1–2, 6, 33–34, 58–59, 221, 239, 242–243
current debate on sex testing and fairness in, 37–39
gender, mediatisation and, 10–13
gender trouble and, 13–15
history of sex testing in, 35–37
and search for gender equality, 187–188
theorising gender and, 15–18
Sport(s), 1, 39–40
as coping mechanism, 82–84
and gender, 6–10
in Latin America, 150
male elite athletes in, 74–75
mental health suffering as antithesis of, 77–80
nuance of suffering in, 75
SPORTDiscus, 39–40
Stockholm Consensus, 37
Stylized exoticism, 122–123
Subcultural violence, 95–96
Summer Olympic Games. See also Winter Olympics Games, 1, 4, 6, 12
in Beijing (2008), 242–243
Los Angeles in 2028, 243
Paris in 2024, 243
in Rio, 240–241
(Supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Sydney Games (2000), 13
‘Symbolic politics’, 4–5
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
IAAF Policy on Gender Verification, 38
Inclusive masculinity, 74, 118
Inclusive policies, 34, 49–50
Indianapolis 500, 115–116
IndyCar, 120–121
Infantino, Gianni (FIFA President), 133–134
Inter* athletes, 239
Inter*sex, 37–38
Inter*sex athletes, 37–38
Inter*sex people, 33–34
International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF), 9, 33
International Broadcast Centre (IBC), 170–171
International crises, 1
International Federation of Football Associations (FIFA), 190–191
International Olympic Committee (IOC), 4, 33, 168, 240
International sport, 202–203
competitions, 227–234
Intersex, 39–40
sports competitions, 227–234
Iranian women, 177
Kellner, 115
Kelly Catlin (cyclist), 74
Kłobukowska, Ewa, 36
“Known hooligans” movement, 94–95
Ladies European Tour (LET), 201
Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), 201
Lambert, Elizabeth (University of New Mexico soccer player), 61
Le Mans, 120–121
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer (LGBTQ+), 15
rights, 168
Liberal feminism, 17
Liberal feminist approach, 16–17
Linguistic depiction, 224–225, 233–234
Macho racers, 117–120
Male elite athletes, 73
athlete role models and recovery, 84–87
displaying vulnerability, 80–82
interpretative analysis, 75–76
mental health suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
methods and approach to study, 75–77
nuance of suffering in sport, 75
sport and mental health, 74–75
sport as coping mechanism, 82–84
Marozsan, Dzseinifer (Germany), 137
Masculine hegemonic entrenchment, 205
Masculinity, 75
aggressive, 91
football, violence and, 92
hegemonic, 117–118
hyper, 7
inclusive, 74, 118
Masculinity in sport, 57–58
McKinnon’s theory, 49–50
Media
coverage, 11
framing of sports, 12
lack of media exposure, 222–223, 228, 232
mediatisation, 10–13
representation, 11
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
traditional–print and TV, 243
women athletes in, 59–60
Mediated reach, 3
Mediatisation, 10, 13, 243
of sport events, 116
Medico-scientific foundation, 40–45
Mega-event(s), 1–3, 12, 241
gendered order, 156–157
hosting, 3
masculine hegemony in, 13–14
meaning, 6
Mental health, 75–76
and male elite athletes, 74–75
suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
Mental toughness, 75
Minimum pay of female professional players, 193–194
Monaco Grand Prix, 115–116
Montreal Summer Olympics (1976), 4
Morgan, Alex, 64–65
Motor-racing events, 115–116
Motorsport, 119
‘Mulheres negras’ movement, 153
Multiplicity, 17
National identity
in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
gender differences in sports media, 222–225
intermingling of gender/nationality, 225–227
international, intersex sports competitions, 227–234
National proxy warriors, 210–212
National sport federations (NSFs), 195
Nationalism, 91, 93, 95–96
Nationality, 239
Neo-colonial fetishism, 35
Neoliberal feminisms, 18
‘New’ media, 11
Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), 154
Nuance of suffering in sport, 75
NVivo software, 77
‘Off-field’ case study, 150
Okolofutbola
, 98
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan violence, 100
Olympic Games, 5–7, 9–10, 34, 39–40, 58–59, 221–222
Olympic Games–Summer, 35
general, 1
Rio (2016), 10–11
Tokyo (2020/21), 39, 240
Olympic Games–Winter
general, 1
Sochi (2014), 167
Olympique Lyonnais
, 190–191
Olympique Marseille (OM), 101
Olympism, 5
Online academic databases, 39–40
Organisational performance, efficiency of, 165
Organised sport, 6–7
Ornamental females, 120–124
Pan American Games, 1, 6
Patrick, Danica (racing driver), 136
Perfectionism, 74–75
Performance
cultural, 171
gender, 1
organisational, 165
technical, 171
Plurality, 156
Polycystic ovary syndrome, 38
Post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
Postcolonial feminisms, 17–18
Primera Iberdrola
, 192
Professional sport, 48–49
Public perception, 241
PubMed, 39–40
Qatar FIFA Men’s World Cup (2022), 244
Race, 45, 47, 239
Racial hierarchies, 46
Racism
in football, 107, 139–140
Megan Rapinoe and, 134–135
in Russia, 169
Rapinoe, Megan (US footballer), 14–15, 64–65, 134–135, 137–139, 141, 239–240
empowerment, 142–143
most valuable player and top scorer of tournament in FIFA Women’s World Cup, 134–135
in national politics, 142–143
outspoken on multiple forums, 135
#USWNT, 143
Real Madrid
, 188
Red-Blue Warriors at CSKA, 97–98
Renard, Wendie (France), 137
Resistance concept, 152–153
Reto Iberdrola
, 192
Rights, scandal, 4
Rio Games (2016), 13
Role congruity theory (RCT), 59, 62
Rousey, Ronda (wrestler), 136
Rubiales, Luis (president of Spanish Football Federation), 192
Rugby World Cup, 6
Russia
Controversy, 167–168
Putin, 99
Russian Federation, football hooliganism in, 96–99
Russian football hooliganism, 108
USSR, 97–98
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Sanden, Shanice Van De (Holland), 137
Sarajevo Winter Olympics (1984), 4
Scopus, 39–40
Self-categorisation theory, 221–222
Self-disclosure, 136
as statement, 140–141
Self-empowerment, 136
and politics, 141–143
Self-love, 136
Semenya, Caster (African athlete), 9, 39
Separatism, 98
Sex, 35
verification tests, 33
Sex biology, 46
Sex integration, 14–15
Sex regulation, 39–40
Sex segregation, 39–40
Sex testing, 33–34, 39–40
analysis, 40
author’s position, 35
current debate on sex testing and fairness in sport mega-events, 37–39
history of, 35–37
hyperandrogenism, race and gender, 45–47
level playing field, 47–48
medico-scientific foundation and (bio)ethical considerations of current regulations, 40–45
methods, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
reviewed articles by themes, 41–43
in sport mega-events, 33
Sexuality, 9–10, 239
‘Sexually empowered’ female, 8–9
Sharapova, Maria (tennis players), 136
Shared experience, 180–181
Snapchat (instant-messaging application), 136–137
Social comparison theory, 225
Social identity theory in action, 225–227
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
Social role theory (SRT), 59, 62–63
Socioeconomic characteristics, 190
Sociology of sport, 1–2
Solheim Cup, 202
critical feminist research approach, 207–209
gender and national identity in(Golf) sport media, 204–206
as Golf, 209–210
national proxy warriors, 210–212
Pettersen the ‘Supermum’, 212–214
Ryder Cup’s little sister, 214–215
story of 2019 Solheim Cup, 206
(supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Women’s Golf and, 201–202
Spanish Football Federation, 187–188
Sport media, 12
gender differences in, 222–225
Sport mega-events. See also Football World Cup (FWC), 1–2, 6, 33–34, 58–59, 221, 239, 242–243
current debate on sex testing and fairness in, 37–39
gender, mediatisation and, 10–13
gender trouble and, 13–15
history of sex testing in, 35–37
and search for gender equality, 187–188
theorising gender and, 15–18
Sport(s), 1, 39–40
as coping mechanism, 82–84
and gender, 6–10
in Latin America, 150
male elite athletes in, 74–75
mental health suffering as antithesis of, 77–80
nuance of suffering in, 75
SPORTDiscus, 39–40
Stockholm Consensus, 37
Stylized exoticism, 122–123
Subcultural violence, 95–96
Summer Olympic Games. See also Winter Olympics Games, 1, 4, 6, 12
in Beijing (2008), 242–243
Los Angeles in 2028, 243
Paris in 2024, 243
in Rio, 240–241
(Supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Sydney Games (2000), 13
‘Symbolic politics’, 4–5
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
Ladies European Tour (LET), 201
Ladies Professional Golf Association (LPGA), 201
Lambert, Elizabeth (University of New Mexico soccer player), 61
Le Mans, 120–121
Lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans, queer (LGBTQ+), 15
rights, 168
Liberal feminism, 17
Liberal feminist approach, 16–17
Linguistic depiction, 224–225, 233–234
Macho racers, 117–120
Male elite athletes, 73
athlete role models and recovery, 84–87
displaying vulnerability, 80–82
interpretative analysis, 75–76
mental health suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
methods and approach to study, 75–77
nuance of suffering in sport, 75
sport and mental health, 74–75
sport as coping mechanism, 82–84
Marozsan, Dzseinifer (Germany), 137
Masculine hegemonic entrenchment, 205
Masculinity, 75
aggressive, 91
football, violence and, 92
hegemonic, 117–118
hyper, 7
inclusive, 74, 118
Masculinity in sport, 57–58
McKinnon’s theory, 49–50
Media
coverage, 11
framing of sports, 12
lack of media exposure, 222–223, 228, 232
mediatisation, 10–13
representation, 11
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
traditional–print and TV, 243
women athletes in, 59–60
Mediated reach, 3
Mediatisation, 10, 13, 243
of sport events, 116
Medico-scientific foundation, 40–45
Mega-event(s), 1–3, 12, 241
gendered order, 156–157
hosting, 3
masculine hegemony in, 13–14
meaning, 6
Mental health, 75–76
and male elite athletes, 74–75
suffering as antithesis of sport, 77–80
Mental toughness, 75
Minimum pay of female professional players, 193–194
Monaco Grand Prix, 115–116
Montreal Summer Olympics (1976), 4
Morgan, Alex, 64–65
Motor-racing events, 115–116
Motorsport, 119
‘Mulheres negras’ movement, 153
Multiplicity, 17
National identity
in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
gender differences in sports media, 222–225
intermingling of gender/nationality, 225–227
international, intersex sports competitions, 227–234
National proxy warriors, 210–212
National sport federations (NSFs), 195
Nationalism, 91, 93, 95–96
Nationality, 239
Neo-colonial fetishism, 35
Neoliberal feminisms, 18
‘New’ media, 11
Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), 154
Nuance of suffering in sport, 75
NVivo software, 77
‘Off-field’ case study, 150
Okolofutbola
, 98
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan violence, 100
Olympic Games, 5–7, 9–10, 34, 39–40, 58–59, 221–222
Olympic Games–Summer, 35
general, 1
Rio (2016), 10–11
Tokyo (2020/21), 39, 240
Olympic Games–Winter
general, 1
Sochi (2014), 167
Olympique Lyonnais
, 190–191
Olympique Marseille (OM), 101
Olympism, 5
Online academic databases, 39–40
Organisational performance, efficiency of, 165
Organised sport, 6–7
Ornamental females, 120–124
Pan American Games, 1, 6
Patrick, Danica (racing driver), 136
Perfectionism, 74–75
Performance
cultural, 171
gender, 1
organisational, 165
technical, 171
Plurality, 156
Polycystic ovary syndrome, 38
Post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
Postcolonial feminisms, 17–18
Primera Iberdrola
, 192
Professional sport, 48–49
Public perception, 241
PubMed, 39–40
Qatar FIFA Men’s World Cup (2022), 244
Race, 45, 47, 239
Racial hierarchies, 46
Racism
in football, 107, 139–140
Megan Rapinoe and, 134–135
in Russia, 169
Rapinoe, Megan (US footballer), 14–15, 64–65, 134–135, 137–139, 141, 239–240
empowerment, 142–143
most valuable player and top scorer of tournament in FIFA Women’s World Cup, 134–135
in national politics, 142–143
outspoken on multiple forums, 135
#USWNT, 143
Real Madrid
, 188
Red-Blue Warriors at CSKA, 97–98
Renard, Wendie (France), 137
Resistance concept, 152–153
Reto Iberdrola
, 192
Rights, scandal, 4
Rio Games (2016), 13
Role congruity theory (RCT), 59, 62
Rousey, Ronda (wrestler), 136
Rubiales, Luis (president of Spanish Football Federation), 192
Rugby World Cup, 6
Russia
Controversy, 167–168
Putin, 99
Russian Federation, football hooliganism in, 96–99
Russian football hooliganism, 108
USSR, 97–98
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Sanden, Shanice Van De (Holland), 137
Sarajevo Winter Olympics (1984), 4
Scopus, 39–40
Self-categorisation theory, 221–222
Self-disclosure, 136
as statement, 140–141
Self-empowerment, 136
and politics, 141–143
Self-love, 136
Semenya, Caster (African athlete), 9, 39
Separatism, 98
Sex, 35
verification tests, 33
Sex biology, 46
Sex integration, 14–15
Sex regulation, 39–40
Sex segregation, 39–40
Sex testing, 33–34, 39–40
analysis, 40
author’s position, 35
current debate on sex testing and fairness in sport mega-events, 37–39
history of, 35–37
hyperandrogenism, race and gender, 45–47
level playing field, 47–48
medico-scientific foundation and (bio)ethical considerations of current regulations, 40–45
methods, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
reviewed articles by themes, 41–43
in sport mega-events, 33
Sexuality, 9–10, 239
‘Sexually empowered’ female, 8–9
Sharapova, Maria (tennis players), 136
Shared experience, 180–181
Snapchat (instant-messaging application), 136–137
Social comparison theory, 225
Social identity theory in action, 225–227
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
Social role theory (SRT), 59, 62–63
Socioeconomic characteristics, 190
Sociology of sport, 1–2
Solheim Cup, 202
critical feminist research approach, 207–209
gender and national identity in(Golf) sport media, 204–206
as Golf, 209–210
national proxy warriors, 210–212
Pettersen the ‘Supermum’, 212–214
Ryder Cup’s little sister, 214–215
story of 2019 Solheim Cup, 206
(supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Women’s Golf and, 201–202
Spanish Football Federation, 187–188
Sport media, 12
gender differences in, 222–225
Sport mega-events. See also Football World Cup (FWC), 1–2, 6, 33–34, 58–59, 221, 239, 242–243
current debate on sex testing and fairness in, 37–39
gender, mediatisation and, 10–13
gender trouble and, 13–15
history of sex testing in, 35–37
and search for gender equality, 187–188
theorising gender and, 15–18
Sport(s), 1, 39–40
as coping mechanism, 82–84
and gender, 6–10
in Latin America, 150
male elite athletes in, 74–75
mental health suffering as antithesis of, 77–80
nuance of suffering in, 75
SPORTDiscus, 39–40
Stockholm Consensus, 37
Stylized exoticism, 122–123
Subcultural violence, 95–96
Summer Olympic Games. See also Winter Olympics Games, 1, 4, 6, 12
in Beijing (2008), 242–243
Los Angeles in 2028, 243
Paris in 2024, 243
in Rio, 240–241
(Supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Sydney Games (2000), 13
‘Symbolic politics’, 4–5
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
National identity
in (Golf) sport media, 204–206
gender differences in sports media, 222–225
intermingling of gender/nationality, 225–227
international, intersex sports competitions, 227–234
National proxy warriors, 210–212
National sport federations (NSFs), 195
Nationalism, 91, 93, 95–96
Nationality, 239
Neo-colonial fetishism, 35
Neoliberal feminisms, 18
‘New’ media, 11
Nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), 154
Nuance of suffering in sport, 75
NVivo software, 77
‘Off-field’ case study, 150
Okolofutbola
, 98
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan violence, 100
Olympic Games, 5–7, 9–10, 34, 39–40, 58–59, 221–222
Olympic Games–Summer, 35
general, 1
Rio (2016), 10–11
Tokyo (2020/21), 39, 240
Olympic Games–Winter
general, 1
Sochi (2014), 167
Olympique Lyonnais
, 190–191
Olympique Marseille (OM), 101
Olympism, 5
Online academic databases, 39–40
Organisational performance, efficiency of, 165
Organised sport, 6–7
Ornamental females, 120–124
Pan American Games, 1, 6
Patrick, Danica (racing driver), 136
Perfectionism, 74–75
Performance
cultural, 171
gender, 1
organisational, 165
technical, 171
Plurality, 156
Polycystic ovary syndrome, 38
Post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
Postcolonial feminisms, 17–18
Primera Iberdrola
, 192
Professional sport, 48–49
Public perception, 241
PubMed, 39–40
Qatar FIFA Men’s World Cup (2022), 244
Race, 45, 47, 239
Racial hierarchies, 46
Racism
in football, 107, 139–140
Megan Rapinoe and, 134–135
in Russia, 169
Rapinoe, Megan (US footballer), 14–15, 64–65, 134–135, 137–139, 141, 239–240
empowerment, 142–143
most valuable player and top scorer of tournament in FIFA Women’s World Cup, 134–135
in national politics, 142–143
outspoken on multiple forums, 135
#USWNT, 143
Real Madrid
, 188
Red-Blue Warriors at CSKA, 97–98
Renard, Wendie (France), 137
Resistance concept, 152–153
Reto Iberdrola
, 192
Rights, scandal, 4
Rio Games (2016), 13
Role congruity theory (RCT), 59, 62
Rousey, Ronda (wrestler), 136
Rubiales, Luis (president of Spanish Football Federation), 192
Rugby World Cup, 6
Russia
Controversy, 167–168
Putin, 99
Russian Federation, football hooliganism in, 96–99
Russian football hooliganism, 108
USSR, 97–98
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Sanden, Shanice Van De (Holland), 137
Sarajevo Winter Olympics (1984), 4
Scopus, 39–40
Self-categorisation theory, 221–222
Self-disclosure, 136
as statement, 140–141
Self-empowerment, 136
and politics, 141–143
Self-love, 136
Semenya, Caster (African athlete), 9, 39
Separatism, 98
Sex, 35
verification tests, 33
Sex biology, 46
Sex integration, 14–15
Sex regulation, 39–40
Sex segregation, 39–40
Sex testing, 33–34, 39–40
analysis, 40
author’s position, 35
current debate on sex testing and fairness in sport mega-events, 37–39
history of, 35–37
hyperandrogenism, race and gender, 45–47
level playing field, 47–48
medico-scientific foundation and (bio)ethical considerations of current regulations, 40–45
methods, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
reviewed articles by themes, 41–43
in sport mega-events, 33
Sexuality, 9–10, 239
‘Sexually empowered’ female, 8–9
Sharapova, Maria (tennis players), 136
Shared experience, 180–181
Snapchat (instant-messaging application), 136–137
Social comparison theory, 225
Social identity theory in action, 225–227
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
Social role theory (SRT), 59, 62–63
Socioeconomic characteristics, 190
Sociology of sport, 1–2
Solheim Cup, 202
critical feminist research approach, 207–209
gender and national identity in(Golf) sport media, 204–206
as Golf, 209–210
national proxy warriors, 210–212
Pettersen the ‘Supermum’, 212–214
Ryder Cup’s little sister, 214–215
story of 2019 Solheim Cup, 206
(supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Women’s Golf and, 201–202
Spanish Football Federation, 187–188
Sport media, 12
gender differences in, 222–225
Sport mega-events. See also Football World Cup (FWC), 1–2, 6, 33–34, 58–59, 221, 239, 242–243
current debate on sex testing and fairness in, 37–39
gender, mediatisation and, 10–13
gender trouble and, 13–15
history of sex testing in, 35–37
and search for gender equality, 187–188
theorising gender and, 15–18
Sport(s), 1, 39–40
as coping mechanism, 82–84
and gender, 6–10
in Latin America, 150
male elite athletes in, 74–75
mental health suffering as antithesis of, 77–80
nuance of suffering in, 75
SPORTDiscus, 39–40
Stockholm Consensus, 37
Stylized exoticism, 122–123
Subcultural violence, 95–96
Summer Olympic Games. See also Winter Olympics Games, 1, 4, 6, 12
in Beijing (2008), 242–243
Los Angeles in 2028, 243
Paris in 2024, 243
in Rio, 240–241
(Supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Sydney Games (2000), 13
‘Symbolic politics’, 4–5
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
Pan American Games, 1, 6
Patrick, Danica (racing driver), 136
Perfectionism, 74–75
Performance
cultural, 171
gender, 1
organisational, 165
technical, 171
Plurality, 156
Polycystic ovary syndrome, 38
Post-feminism, 8–9, 18, 135–136
Postcolonial feminisms, 17–18
Primera Iberdrola
, 192
Professional sport, 48–49
Public perception, 241
PubMed, 39–40
Qatar FIFA Men’s World Cup (2022), 244
Race, 45, 47, 239
Racial hierarchies, 46
Racism
in football, 107, 139–140
Megan Rapinoe and, 134–135
in Russia, 169
Rapinoe, Megan (US footballer), 14–15, 64–65, 134–135, 137–139, 141, 239–240
empowerment, 142–143
most valuable player and top scorer of tournament in FIFA Women’s World Cup, 134–135
in national politics, 142–143
outspoken on multiple forums, 135
#USWNT, 143
Real Madrid
, 188
Red-Blue Warriors at CSKA, 97–98
Renard, Wendie (France), 137
Resistance concept, 152–153
Reto Iberdrola
, 192
Rights, scandal, 4
Rio Games (2016), 13
Role congruity theory (RCT), 59, 62
Rousey, Ronda (wrestler), 136
Rubiales, Luis (president of Spanish Football Federation), 192
Rugby World Cup, 6
Russia
Controversy, 167–168
Putin, 99
Russian Federation, football hooliganism in, 96–99
Russian football hooliganism, 108
USSR, 97–98
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Sanden, Shanice Van De (Holland), 137
Sarajevo Winter Olympics (1984), 4
Scopus, 39–40
Self-categorisation theory, 221–222
Self-disclosure, 136
as statement, 140–141
Self-empowerment, 136
and politics, 141–143
Self-love, 136
Semenya, Caster (African athlete), 9, 39
Separatism, 98
Sex, 35
verification tests, 33
Sex biology, 46
Sex integration, 14–15
Sex regulation, 39–40
Sex segregation, 39–40
Sex testing, 33–34, 39–40
analysis, 40
author’s position, 35
current debate on sex testing and fairness in sport mega-events, 37–39
history of, 35–37
hyperandrogenism, race and gender, 45–47
level playing field, 47–48
medico-scientific foundation and (bio)ethical considerations of current regulations, 40–45
methods, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
reviewed articles by themes, 41–43
in sport mega-events, 33
Sexuality, 9–10, 239
‘Sexually empowered’ female, 8–9
Sharapova, Maria (tennis players), 136
Shared experience, 180–181
Snapchat (instant-messaging application), 136–137
Social comparison theory, 225
Social identity theory in action, 225–227
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
Social role theory (SRT), 59, 62–63
Socioeconomic characteristics, 190
Sociology of sport, 1–2
Solheim Cup, 202
critical feminist research approach, 207–209
gender and national identity in(Golf) sport media, 204–206
as Golf, 209–210
national proxy warriors, 210–212
Pettersen the ‘Supermum’, 212–214
Ryder Cup’s little sister, 214–215
story of 2019 Solheim Cup, 206
(supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Women’s Golf and, 201–202
Spanish Football Federation, 187–188
Sport media, 12
gender differences in, 222–225
Sport mega-events. See also Football World Cup (FWC), 1–2, 6, 33–34, 58–59, 221, 239, 242–243
current debate on sex testing and fairness in, 37–39
gender, mediatisation and, 10–13
gender trouble and, 13–15
history of sex testing in, 35–37
and search for gender equality, 187–188
theorising gender and, 15–18
Sport(s), 1, 39–40
as coping mechanism, 82–84
and gender, 6–10
in Latin America, 150
male elite athletes in, 74–75
mental health suffering as antithesis of, 77–80
nuance of suffering in, 75
SPORTDiscus, 39–40
Stockholm Consensus, 37
Stylized exoticism, 122–123
Subcultural violence, 95–96
Summer Olympic Games. See also Winter Olympics Games, 1, 4, 6, 12
in Beijing (2008), 242–243
Los Angeles in 2028, 243
Paris in 2024, 243
in Rio, 240–241
(Supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Sydney Games (2000), 13
‘Symbolic politics’, 4–5
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
Race, 45, 47, 239
Racial hierarchies, 46
Racism
in football, 107, 139–140
Megan Rapinoe and, 134–135
in Russia, 169
Rapinoe, Megan (US footballer), 14–15, 64–65, 134–135, 137–139, 141, 239–240
empowerment, 142–143
most valuable player and top scorer of tournament in FIFA Women’s World Cup, 134–135
in national politics, 142–143
outspoken on multiple forums, 135
#USWNT, 143
Real Madrid
, 188
Red-Blue Warriors at CSKA, 97–98
Renard, Wendie (France), 137
Resistance concept, 152–153
Reto Iberdrola
, 192
Rights, scandal, 4
Rio Games (2016), 13
Role congruity theory (RCT), 59, 62
Rousey, Ronda (wrestler), 136
Rubiales, Luis (president of Spanish Football Federation), 192
Rugby World Cup, 6
Russia
Controversy, 167–168
Putin, 99
Russian Federation, football hooliganism in, 96–99
Russian football hooliganism, 108
USSR, 97–98
Ryder Cup, 202–204
Sanden, Shanice Van De (Holland), 137
Sarajevo Winter Olympics (1984), 4
Scopus, 39–40
Self-categorisation theory, 221–222
Self-disclosure, 136
as statement, 140–141
Self-empowerment, 136
and politics, 141–143
Self-love, 136
Semenya, Caster (African athlete), 9, 39
Separatism, 98
Sex, 35
verification tests, 33
Sex biology, 46
Sex integration, 14–15
Sex regulation, 39–40
Sex segregation, 39–40
Sex testing, 33–34, 39–40
analysis, 40
author’s position, 35
current debate on sex testing and fairness in sport mega-events, 37–39
history of, 35–37
hyperandrogenism, race and gender, 45–47
level playing field, 47–48
medico-scientific foundation and (bio)ethical considerations of current regulations, 40–45
methods, 39–40
promise of fairness and inclusive policies, 49–50
reviewed articles by themes, 41–43
in sport mega-events, 33
Sexuality, 9–10, 239
‘Sexually empowered’ female, 8–9
Sharapova, Maria (tennis players), 136
Shared experience, 180–181
Snapchat (instant-messaging application), 136–137
Social comparison theory, 225
Social identity theory in action, 225–227
Social media, 11–12, 60, 134, 223–224
Social role theory (SRT), 59, 62–63
Socioeconomic characteristics, 190
Sociology of sport, 1–2
Solheim Cup, 202
critical feminist research approach, 207–209
gender and national identity in(Golf) sport media, 204–206
as Golf, 209–210
national proxy warriors, 210–212
Pettersen the ‘Supermum’, 212–214
Ryder Cup’s little sister, 214–215
story of 2019 Solheim Cup, 206
(supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Women’s Golf and, 201–202
Spanish Football Federation, 187–188
Sport media, 12
gender differences in, 222–225
Sport mega-events. See also Football World Cup (FWC), 1–2, 6, 33–34, 58–59, 221, 239, 242–243
current debate on sex testing and fairness in, 37–39
gender, mediatisation and, 10–13
gender trouble and, 13–15
history of sex testing in, 35–37
and search for gender equality, 187–188
theorising gender and, 15–18
Sport(s), 1, 39–40
as coping mechanism, 82–84
and gender, 6–10
in Latin America, 150
male elite athletes in, 74–75
mental health suffering as antithesis of, 77–80
nuance of suffering in, 75
SPORTDiscus, 39–40
Stockholm Consensus, 37
Stylized exoticism, 122–123
Subcultural violence, 95–96
Summer Olympic Games. See also Winter Olympics Games, 1, 4, 6, 12
in Beijing (2008), 242–243
Los Angeles in 2028, 243
Paris in 2024, 243
in Rio, 240–241
(Supra-)national identity and golf, 202–204
Sydney Games (2000), 13
‘Symbolic politics’, 4–5
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
T-talk, 46
Technological performance, 170–171
effectiveness of, 165–166
Televisual techniques, 115–116
Thematic analysis, 209
Third-wave feminism, 11, 18
Thorpe, Ian (swimmer), 74
Tokyo Olympics (2020/21), 240–241
Tokyo Organising Committee, 240
Torvill, Jayne, 163–164
Traditional media, 243
Traditional values, 179–180
Trans*athletes, 37, 239
Trans*men, 37
Trans*people, 33–34
Trans*persons, 37–38
Trans*women, 33–34, 37, 40, 47
Transgender, 39–40
Tweddle, Beth (British female gymnast), 8
Two-sex model, 33
UEFA Championships, France (2016), 92, 101, 106
Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), 6, 190–191
United States Women’s National team (USWNT), 57, 64–65
Urban transformation, 3–4
US Women’s National Team (USWNT), 19
Ustawki
, 98
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
Video assistant referees (VAR), 170–171
Violence
fan violence at football, 93–94
football and, 92
‘Old Skool’ typologies of hooligan, 100
subcultural, 95–96
Visitor attractiveness, 3
Visual content analysis, 223–224
Visual depiction, 223–224, 232–233
Visual media portrayals, 223–224
Visual representation of women athletes, 232–233
Vulnerability, displaying, 80–82
Well-being, 75–76
Western notion of binary sex, 34
Whiteness, 9–10
Williams, Serena (tennis players), 11–12, 136, 138
Wimbledon Tennis Championships, 2–3
Winter Olympics Games. See also Summer Olympic Games
in PyeongChang(2018), 10–11
in Sarajevo (1984), 4
in Sochi (2014), 167–168
Women, 63
athletes in media, 59–60
barriers for women in sport, 60–64
category in elite sport, 33
with DSD, 40
ethical relativism, 63–64
football in Spain, 187
in football management, 195–196
in Formula One, 120
gender inequality in Spanish sports, 189–190
gender stereotypes in sport media, 60–61
gendered evaluations of dominant play, 64–66
improvements in professional women’s football, 192–193
with inter*sex variations, 33–34
limits of progress, 193–196
more girls and women playing football, 193
participation rates in sport, 57
position in sport, 8
positive impacts of women’s football mega-events in Spain, 191–193
role congruity and social role theory, 62–63
selection of empirical case and sources, 188–189
sport mega-events and search for gender equality, 187–188
and sports in Latin America, 150
football mega-events, 190–191
Women’s Golf and Solheim Cup, 201–202
Women’s World Golf Rankings (WWGR), 206
Working conditions of female professional players, 193–194
World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA), 37
World Athletics. See International Association of Athletics Federation (IAAF)
World Athletics Championships, 1, 34
- Prelims
- Chapter 1 Introduction: Sport, Gender and Mega-Events
- Section 1 Problematising Gendered Bodies and Behaviours
- Chapter 2 Sex Testing in Sport Mega-Events: Fairness and the Illusive Promise of Inclusive Policies – Situating Inter* and Trans*Athletes in Elite Sport
- Chapter 3 Ethical Relativism and Sport Mega-Event Gendered Discourses: Uneasiness towards the Dominant Play of Women in Sport
- Section 2 Masculinity, Sport and Mega-Events
- Chapter 4 Not Feeling So Mega, but Still Being a Mega Star: Exploring Male Elite Athletes' Mental Health Accounts from a Gendered Perspective
- Chapter 5 Security, Locality and Aggressive Masculinity: Hooliganism and Nationalism at Football Mega-Events
- Chapter 6 The Formula One Paradox: Macho Male Racers and Ornamental Glamour ‘Girls’
- Section 3 Gender, Disruption and Transformation at Mega-Events
- Chapter 7 ‘Dare to Shine’: Megan Rapinoe as the Rebellious Star of the FIFA Women's World Cup 2019
- Chapter 8 Who Owns the Ball? Gender (Dis)Order and the 2014 FIFA World Cup
- Chapter 9 I Gotta Feeling … Let's Turn to the People! The 2018 Football World Cup in Russia
- Section 4 Gender, Sport and Mega-Events: Moving towards Equality?
- Chapter 10 Sport Mega-Events as Drivers of Gender Equality: Women's Football in Spain
- Chapter 11 The Solheim Cup: Media Representations of Golf, Gender and National Identity
- Chapter 12 Flag before Gender Biases? The Case for National Identity Bolstering Women Athlete Visibility in Sports Mega-Events
- Chapter 13 Conclusions: Sport, Gender and Mega-Events: Looking to the Future
- Index