Accountability

, 159, 162

Acumen Fund

, 118

Adaptability

, 94, 96–97

Agreements

, 4–5, 70, 93, 109

commercial

, 104

free trade

, 2, 63

international

, 102

political monetary

, 19

trade

, 47–48, 62, 64, 102

Air transport infrastructure

, 116

American Acumen Fund

, 119

Ancient Peruvians

, 92

Andean Community

, 47, 49

Andean culture

, 89

philosophical principles

, 93–94

ANOVA analysis

, 79–80

Asia-Pacific region (AP region)

, 14, 49

Association of Agroforestry Producers of the Center of Bolivar (ASPROACEB)

, 146–147

Association of Christian Regulators

, 158

Association of Latin American Entrepreneurs (ASELA)

, 114

Automotive industry

, 29

automotive supply chain

, 32

competitive advantages

, 35

congruence matrix of research

, 31

global competitiveness models

, 34–37

global production of automotive vehicles

, 33

identification of competitiveness pillars of Mexico within PA region

, 38–40

literature review

, 30–34

mega industrial trends in

, 34

methodology

, 41

pillars with indicators

, 39

profile of countries of PA

, 37–38

testing work hypothesis

, 40

total sales by region

, 32

Avina

, 118–119

Baby Boomers

, 74–75, 77–78

Gen Xers vs.

, 81

Millennials vs.

, 79–80

Balance of trade

, 62

of Mexico

, 63–67

Pacific Alliance

, 67–69

Bankruptcy

, 156

Bavaria Foundation

, 119

Behavior(s)

, 74, 95

differentiated

, 49

of entrepreneur

, 168

of external markets

, 103

of indicators

, 102

of individuals

, 94

institutional

, 25

of international markets

, 100

leader

, 76

organizational citizenship

, 94–95

results of organizational

, 96

of SMEs

, 100

Bilateral interactions

, 141

resource exchange for nontraditional

, 144

resource exchange for traditional

, 143

Bogotá Chamber of Commerce

, 119

Born Global theory

, 100

Bridging social capital

, 136–138, 142–144, 148–149

Business

in Development Facility Hub

, 119

initiatives

, 124

in Peru

, 92–93

Business Council of Pacific Alliance (CEAP)

, 6

Business ecosystems

, 129, 134, 138–140, 144

case description and analysis

, 141

Colombian case study

, 146–150

methodology

, 140

Mexican agricultural firm case study

, 141–146

procedure

, 141

sample

, 140

taxonomy

, 151

type of resource exchange within

, 146

Caribbean region

, 47

Catholicism

, 91

Center for Latin American Studies (CELSA)

, 21

Center for Social Innovation (CIS)

, 118

Chile

adoption of CSR by SMEs in

, 159–160

commercial opportunities between Mexico and

, 68–69

corporate social responsibility

, 157–159

economic recession

, 156

entrepreneurship in

, 170–171, 174–175

implications for PA

, 162–163

SMEs in

, 156–157

sustainability in SMEs from

, 160–162

trade agreements in

, 47–48

Ciudad innovadora

, 124

Civic virtue

, 95–96

Classical theory of international trade

, 101

Cluster(s)

automotive

, 30, 36

generation

, 10

Colombia(n)

, 128

bridging social capital

, 148–149

business ecosystem

, 149–150

case study

, 146

case to PA

, 128–129

commercial opportunities between Mexico and

, 68

context

, 115

current situation in

, 115–117

economy

, 115–116

resources

, 146–148

trade agreements in

, 47–48

Colombian Bavaria Foundation

, 119

Community

, 144

community-based SE model

, 127

community-based SI

, 123

organization

, 123

Compartamos con Colombia initiative

, 117–118

Competition

, 14, 17, 170

forces

, 37

global competition model

, 38

hyper-global

, 14

international

, 16

Competitiveness

, 6, 9, 30, 35, 161–162, 170

economic and commercial analysis

, 17

indicators

, 16–17, 22–25

of PA countries

, 13–25

pillars of Mexico

, 38–40

Complementary Agreements Economic and Partial Scope Agreements (CAEPSAs)

, 63

Consolidation/maturity

, 124, 126

Consortium

, 127

Convergence

estimation

, 49

of European Monetary Union

, 48–49

hypothesis

, 46

test

, 48

See also Economic convergence

Convergence index (CI)

, 47, 51–52

by periods and criteria

, 53

results

, 52–57

See also Economic convergence index (ECI)

Cooperation

, 2, 4, 14, 21, 137, 145

customs

, 15

economic cooperation schemes

, 47

in education

, 8

fostered traditional partnerships

, 150

productive business

, 92

Corporación Mujeres Autónomas Unidas (Cormaun)

, 127

Corporate citizenship

, 159

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

, 135, 157–159

adoption of CSR by SMEs in Chile

, 159–160

indicators

, 159

policy

, 129

practices

, 160–161, 163

and sustainability practices

, 163

Correlation(s)

, 47

analysis

, 51–52

of growth indicators

, 54

of inflation and exchange rate index

, 55

of internal variables

, 56

Corruption

, 26, 93, 117, 162

Cost-effective business models

, 113–114

Costa Rica

, 2, 114–115

Creative Bazaar Model

, 139

Cultural/culture

cultural–educational implications

, 6–9

culture E program

, 123

development

, 122

of Peru

, 91–92

Cyclical variables. See Real variables

Davivienda Company

, 119

Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadísticas (DANE)

, 115

Departamento Nacional de Planeación (DNP)

, 115–116

Department for Social Prosperity

, 119

Developing countries

, 48, 62, 75, 100, 102, 136, 150, 157–158, 168

Displacement of people

, 4

Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs

, 119

EAFIT Social Program

, 122, 127

Economic convergence

G7 countries

, 50

in North American region

, 49

process

, 46, 48

Economic convergence index (ECI)

, 49

criteria for ECI interpretation

, 52

methodology

, 50–52

sample and variables

, 51–52

weights used in ECI variants

, 51

See also Convergence index (CI)

Economic integration

, 46

in AP region

, 49

Economic/economy

, 2, 19, 30

commission for Latin America

, 102

development phases

, 122, 170

engine

, 155

forum

, 22

growth

, 169

Mexican

, 63, 70

model

, 156

perspective, internationalization from

, 101

reforms

, 170

sustainability

, 134–135

symbiosis

, 142

theory

, 46

and trade implications

, 5–6

value

, 139

Ecosystems

, 114–115

See also Business ecosystems

Education(al)

, 74, 79, 92, 122–123, 159, 170

cooperation in

, 8

coverage

, 9

development

, 122

implications

, 6–9

level of entrepreneurs

, 174

public educational expenses

, 20

sectors

, 26

system

, 117

system in Colombia

, 117

Eleos Foundation

, 119

“Entrepreneurial economy” model

, 169

Entrepreneurs

, 123, 142, 171–172

in early stages of education

, 173

in economic development

, 169

Entrepreneurship

, 114, 168

comparison between Chile and Mexico

, 173

degrees of participation in early entrepreneurial activity

, 172–174

and economic development

, 169

ecosystem in Medellín

, 124–126

in Latin America

, 169–175

in Mexico and Chile

, 170–171

processes

, 123

theoretical framework

, 168–169

as trigger for social and economic impact in Mexico and Chile

, 174–175

undertakings at services sector

, 171

undertakings in initial stages

, 171–172

See also Global entrepreneurship monitor (GEM); Social entrepreneurship (SE)

Environment and Green Growth, technical group on

, 162–163

European Union (EU)

, 48–49, 66

Export(s)

diversification

, 61–62, 70

export-led growth

, 62

from metalworking sector

, 103–104

Farmers’ cooperative

, 151

Financial

capital

, 141, 150

convergence

, 55, 57

support programs

, 128

Foreign direct investment (FDI)

, 47

Free trade agreements (FTAs)

, 47–48

Freedom of religion

, 91

Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia-Ejército del Pueblo (FARC-EP)

, 115

G7 countries, economic growth convergence for

, 50

Gen Y Millennials

, 74, 77–78, 81

Gender-based violence (GBV)

, 127

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)

, 2, 64

General Assembly of the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)

, 122

Generation X (Gen Xers)

, 74, 77–78

Baby Boomers vs.

, 81

Millennials vs.

, 80–81

Generation(al)

, 77

diversity

, 74

Global Compact principles

, 158

Global Competitiveness Index

, 16, 22–24, 30

Global competitiveness models

, 34–37, 38

See also Competitiveness

Global entrepreneurship monitor (GEM)

, 170–171

methodology

, 170

in Mexico

, 174

Global Reporting Initiative (GRI)

, 159–160

Globalization

, 74, 100–101, 102

labor market

, 9

of markets

, 100

process

, 62

See also Internationalization

Gross domestic product (GDP)

, 2, 14, 17, 47, 116

government spending to

, 49

growth

, 18, 115

projections

, 115

Help (behavior variable)

, 95–96

Horizontal multilateralism

, 4

Human capital

, 20, 74, 135–136

Incubation

, 114, 124–125

Industry effect. See Sector effect

Inflation

, 14, 17–19, 49–50, 53

and consumer prices

, 19

correlation

, 55

rates

, 54

Information technology and communications (ITCs)

, 104, 108, 124

Inhabitants, educational quality of

, 9

Initiative (behavior variable)

, 95–96

Innovation(s)

, 135

exchange

, 149

See also Social innovation (SI)

Instiglio

, 118

Integrated System for Entrepreneurship Promotion (SIPE)

, 157

Inter-American Development Bank (IDB)

, 114, 117, 118

Inter-parliamentary Commission

, 5

International

community

, 117

markets

, 14–15

Internationalization

, 100, 103

from economic perspective

, 101

models

, 100–103

from process perspective

, 101

See also Globalization

Intra-alliance trade

, 114

Investment(s)

attraction for

, 20–22

capital

, 135–136

rate

, 49

Jam Central Model

, 139

Knowledge

, 8, 16, 103, 135–136, 141, 150, 174

creation

, 170

dissemination

, 170

knowledge-based businesses

, 169

market

, 102

LAB 4 Innovation and Entrepreneurship Forum of Alliance

, 114

“Labor Mobility in the Pacific Alliance” program

, 5

Latin America

, 2, 14, 47, 54, 156, 167

economic and financial blocs in

, 5

entrepreneurship in

, 169–175

exports from metalworking sector

, 103–106

ineffectiveness of social policy in

, 168

integration in

, 5

internationalization

, 101–103

SME internationalization in

, 99

Latin American context, leadership in

, 76–77

Latin American Integrated Stock Market (MILA)

, 6

Latin American Integration Association (ALADI)

, 63

Leadership

, 30, 32, 34, 74

authentic

, 76

Baby Boomers, Gen Xers, and Gen Y Millennials

, 77–78

Baby Boomers vs. Gen Xers

, 81

Baby Boomers vs. Millennials

, 79–80

behaviors in Latin America

, 76

competitive

, 37

evolution

, 75–76

findings

, 79

independent samples t-test

, 82

Latin American and Mexican context

, 76–77

Millennials vs. Gen Xers

, 80–81

Millennials’ perception of

, 75

research method

, 78–79

transformational

, 76

Levene’s test

, 79

Library of National Congress of Chile (2010)

, 157

Loyalty (behavior variable)

, 95–96

Maastricht Treaty

, 49

Map of Business Competitiveness

, 16

Medellín

, 113, 118, 122–128

Mercosur

, 48–49

Metalworking sector

exports from

, 103–104

in Mexico

, 106–108

in Peru

, 104–109

Mexican agricultural firm case study

, 141

bridging social capital

, 142–144

business ecosystem

, 144–146

resources

, 141–142

Mexican context, leadership in

, 76–77

Mexican exports

, 47

Mexican foreign policy

, 2, 4

Mexican Stock Exchange

, 6

Mexico

balance trade of Mexico

, 63–67

challenges in commercial integration with PA countries

, 62

competitive advantages of automotive industry in

, 35

entrepreneurship as trigger for social and economic impact in

, 174–175

entrepreneurship in

, 170–171

exports from metalworking sector in

, 106–108

GEM in

, 174

identification of competitiveness pillars within PA region

, 38–40

Pacific Alliance agreement

, 62–63

Pacific Alliance balance of trade

, 67–69

trade agreements in

, 47–48

Millennials

, 78

Baby Boomers vs.

, 79–80

Gen Xers vs.

, 80–81

Mod Station Model

, 139

Montes de María community

, 146, 148

Multinational corporations (MNCs)

, 119, 137

National Development Plan

, 118

National Institute of Statistics and Information (INEI)

, 90

National Liberation Army

, 116

National Network for Entrepreneurship

, 118

National Program for Development of Small and Medium Enterprises

, 156

Neo-classical theory

, 46, 48

Network theory

, 101

Nongovernment organizations (NGOs)

, 118, 129, 144, 150

Nonprofit organizations

, 150–151

international

, 119

traditional

, 134

Nontraditional

actors

, 150

partnerships

, 134, 138, 145, 150

resource exchange for nontraditional bilateral interactions

, 144

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

, 2, 47, 62, 64, 109

Open regionalism

, 2, 46

Organization for Competitiveness and Economic Development (OECD)

, 16, 115, 168

Organizational

citizenship behaviors in Peru

, 94–95

culture in Peru

, 94

diversity

, 77

Pacific Alliance (PA)

, 2, 8, 14, 30, 46, 113–114, 162–163

agreement

, 57, 62–63

attraction for investments

, 20–22

automotive industrial profile of countries of

, 37–38

balance of trade

, 67

capitalization of stock exchanges

, 8

challenges

, 9–10

Colombian case to

, 128–129

cultural–educational implications

, 6–9

economic and commercial analysis of competitiveness

, 17

economic and trade implications

, 5–6

economic indicators

, 3, 15

founding countries

, 47

GDP

, 17–18

government organizations

, 7

identification of competitiveness pillars of Mexico

, 38–40

indicators of competitiveness

, 22–25

inflation

, 18–19

Mexico and Chile, commercial opportunities between

, 68–69

Mexico and Colombia, commercial opportunities between

, 68

Mexico and Peru, commercial opportunities between

, 67–68

political–diplomatic implications

, 2–5

primary economic and commercial historical findings

, 14–15

public educational and health expenses

, 20

relevant indicators for automotive cluster in

, 36

theoretical framework

, 15–17, 48–50

unemployment rate

, 19–20

Participation

, 70, 94, 96, 118, 124, 127

degrees of

, 172–174

in external markets

, 103

of MNCs

, 119, 129

of SMEs in international trade

, 101, 102

social

, 129

Penta-dimensional Corporate Sustainability Model (MOPSE)

, 161

Peru

analysis of results

, 95–97

Andean culture principles

, 93–94

business in

, 92–93

commercial opportunities between Mexico and

, 67–68

culture

, 91–92

decision-making, agreements, and contracts

, 93

economic evolution in

, 90–91

exports from metalworking sector in

, 104–106

methodology

, 95

organizational citizenship behaviors

, 94–95

organizational culture

, 94

trade agreements in

, 47–48

Peruvian cuisine

, 91–92

Philanthropy

, 119, 128, 158

Political CSR

, 159

Political–diplomatic implications

, 2–5

Pre-Hispanic Peruvian art

, 92

Private sector

, 93, 114, 117, 129, 138, 156

Process perspective, internationalization from

, 99, 101, 103

Productivity

, 9, 16, 22, 35, 49, 74, 145, 168

Public sector

, 117, 128

Public–private initiatives

, 114

Public–private partnerships

, 128

Regional integration

, 4, 14, 46–48, 114

process in Latin America

, 2

schemes

, 46

See also Economic integration

Relationship dimension

, 161–162

Reputation

, 129, 141–142, 144, 149, 162

Resource-based economies

, 170

Root Capital

, 118–120

Sabor & Delicias

, 127

Science Park for Social Innovation

, 119

Secretariat of Women. See Secretaría de las Mujeres (SM)

Sector effect

, 16

Self-development (behavior variable)

, 95–96

Sistema B

, 118, 121, 175

Small Size Enterprise Division (DEMT)

, 157

Small-and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs)

, 100, 155, 162–163

adoption of CSR by SMEs in Chile

, 159–160

exports from metalworking sector

, 103–106

internationalization models

, 99–103

sustainability in SMEs from Chile

, 160–162

Socas’ methodology

, 50–51

Social

development

, 122

enterprises

, 114

entrepreneurs

, 135, 141

firms

, 135

impact investment

, 128

organization

, 123

security

, 159

term

, 134

value creation

, 134, 144, 150

vulnerability

, 122

Social capital

, 134

bonding

, 137

bridging

, 136–138

Social entrepreneurship (SE)

, 114, 134–135

current situation

, 117–122

model

, 127

Social innovation (SI)

, 114, 118, 135–136

contributions of Colombian case to Pacific Alliance

, 128–129

current situation

, 117–122

Medellín

, 122–128

Social Innovation Policy

, 118

Social Progress Index

, 115

Social Responsibility and Sustainability

, 162–163

Social Responsibility Council for Sustainable Development

, 159

Socialab

, 118, 121

Socially innovative firms

, 134, 136, 139, 145, 151

Colombian firm

, 146

Mexican firm

, 141

Specialized intermediaries

, 115, 118–119, 128

Sports diplomacy program (PDD)

, 9

Sportsmanship (behavior variable)

, 95–96

Stakeholder theory

, 158

Student and Academic Mobility Platform of Pacific Alliance

, 8

Student Scholarship Program

, 8

Sustainability

, 134, 136

equilibrium

, 135

management models

, 161

production processes

, 156

in SMEs from Chile

, 160–162

social ventures

, 144

socially innovative firms

, 137

Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

, 158, 162–163, 174

Swedish Development Agency

, 119

Systemic competitiveness

, 16

model of ECLAC

, 16

Systemic planning model

, 101

Telecommunication infrastructure

, 9

Territory effect. See Country effect

Theory of industrial organization

, 101

Theory of internationalization

, 101

Trade agreements

, 64

in Mexico, Peru, Colombia, and Chile

, 47–48

Traditional

actors

, 150

entrepreneurship ecosystem

, 129

nonprofit organizations

, 134–135

partnership

, 134, 138, 143, 145, 150

resource exchange for traditional bilateral interactions

, 143

trade theory

, 46

Transformational leadership (TL)

, 74–76

Transparency

and communication

, 161

dimension

, 162

Unemployment rate

, 14, 17, 19–20, 55

Unidades de Fomento (UF)

, 157

UNIMINUTO initiative

, 119

United Nations World Urban Forum (2013)

, 122

Universities

, 10, 14, 114, 119, 134, 137, 143, 151

Uppsala model (U model)

, 100, 101, 103

Urban Ambient Air Pollution Global Database

, 156

USA and Swiss Fund Impact Finance

, 119

Ventures

, 4, 119, 129, 136, 151, 171

conventional

, 124

internationalization

, 114

social

, 128, 139

socially innovative

, 151

sustainable social

, 138

Vernon’s innovation and product lifecycle model

, 101

World Economic Forum (WEF)

, 16, 22, 116

World Economic Fund (WEF)

, 30, 35